lit
HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY
BOOK OF
RECIPES, FORMULAS
AND PROCESSES
HENLEY'S
-TWENTIETH CENTURY
FORMULAS. RECIPES
AND PROCESSES'
CONTAINING TEN THOUSAND SELECTED HOUSEHOLD AND
WORKSHOP FORMULAS, RECIPES, PROCESSES AND MONEY-
SAVING METHODS FOR THE PRACTICAL USE
OF MANUFACTURERS, MECHANICS, HOUSE-
KEEPERS AND HOME WORKERS
EDITED BY
GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E.
AUTHOR OF "MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES,"
"COMPRESSED AIR," "GAS, GASOLINE AND
OIL ENGINES," ETC., ETC.
1914 EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
NEW YORK
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
132 NASSAU STREET
1914
(1
COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND 1913, BY
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1912 AND 1907, BY
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
Also, Entered at Stationers' Hall Court, London, England
All rights reserved
THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK
PREFACE
IN compiling this book of formulas, recipes and processes, the Edi-
tor has endeavored to meet the practical requirements of the home and
workshop — the mechanic, the manufacturer, the artisan, the housewife,
and the general home worker.
In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials
from competent sources, the Editor has also modified formulas which
were obviously ill adapted for his needs, but were valuable if altered.
Processes of questionable merit he has discarded. By adhering to this
plan the Editor trusts that he has succeeded in preparing a repos-
itory of useful knowledge representing the experience of experts in
every branch of practical achievement. Much of the matter has been
specially translated for this work from foreign technological period-
icals and books. In this way the Editor has embodied much practical
information otherwise inaccessible to most English-speaking people.
Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of experiment, to be modi-
fied to suit the particular purpose in hand, or the peculiar conditions
which may affect the experimenter. Chemicals are not always of uni-
form relative purity and strength-, heat or cold may markedly influence
the result obtained, and lack of skill in the handling of utensils and
instruments may sometimes cause failure. Inasmuch as a particular
formula may not always be applicable, the Editor has thought it ad-
visable to give as many recipes as his space would allow under each
heading. In some instances a series of formulas is given which appar-
ently differ but slightly in their ingredients. This has been done on
the principle that one or more may be chosen for the purpose in hand.
Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not un-
known, the Editor has endeavored to present in these pages the most
modern methods and formulas. Naturally, old recipes and so-called
trade secrets which have proven their value by long use are also
included, particularly where no noteworthy advance has been made;
but the primary aim has been to modernize and bring the entire work
up to the present date.
284534 THE EDITOR.
JANUARY,
PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED
Apothecary, The.
Berliner Drog. Zeitung.
Brass World.
British Journal of Photography..
Chemical News.
Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium.
Chemisch Technische Fabrikant.
Chemische Zeitung.
Chemist-Druggist.
Comptes Rendus.
Cooley's Receipts.
Cosmos.
Dekorationsmaler, Der.
Deutschq Drog. Zeitung.
Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung.
Deutsche Handwerk.
Deutsche Maler Zeitung.
Deutsche Topfer und Ziefler Zeitung.
Dingler's Polytechnic Journal.
Drogisten Zeitung.
Druggists' Circular.
English Mechanic.
Farben Zeitung.
Gummi Zeitung.
Journal der Goldschmiedekunst.
Journal of Applied Microscopy.
Journal of the Franklin Institute.
Journal Society of Chemical Industry.
Journal Suisse d'Horlogerie.
Keramische Rundschau.
La Nature.
La Science en Famille.
La Vie Scientifique.
Lack und Farben Industrie.
Legierungen.
Le Genie Civil.
Le Praticien.
Leipziger Farber und Zeugdrucker Zei-
tung.
Maler Zeitung.
Metallarbeiter.
Mining and Scientific Press.
Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen.
Nouvelles Scientifiques.
Oils, Colors, and Drysalteries.
Papier-Zeitung.
Parfumer, Der.
Pharmaceutische Zeitung.
Pharmaceutische Centralhalle.
Pharmaceutische Era.
Pharmaceutische Journal.
Pharmaceutische Journal Formulary.
Photo Times.
Polytech. Centralblatt.
Polyt. Notizblatt.
Popular Science News.
Pottery Gazette.
Practical Druggist.
Revue Chronometrique.
Revue de la Droguerie.
Revue des Produits Chimiques.
Revue Industrielle.
Science, Arts and Nature.
Science Pratique.
Seifensieder Zeitung, Der.
Seifenfabrikant, Der.
Spatula.
Stein der Weisen, Der.
Sudd. Apoth. Zeitung.
Technisches Centralblatt.
Technische Rundschau.
Uhland's Technische Rundschau.
Verzinnen Verzinken Vernickeln, Das.
Werkmeister Zeitung.
Wiener Drogisten Zeitung.
Wiener Gewerbe Zeitung.
Zeitschrift fur die Gesammte Kohlen-
saure Industrie.
HENLEY'S BOOK OF RECIPES
ABRASION REMEDY:
See Cosmetics and Ointments.
ABSINTHE:
See Wines and Liquors.
Acid-Proofing
An Acid-Proof Table Top.—
1.
Copper sulphate 1 part
Potassium chlorate.. .. 1 part
Water 8 parts
Boil until salts are dissolved.
2.
Aniline hydrochlorate. 3 parts
Water 20 parts
Or, if more readily procurable:
Aniline 6 parts
Hydrochloric acid 9 parts
Water 50 parts
By the use of a brush two coats of so-
lution No. 1 are applied while hot; the sec-
ond coat as soon as the first is dry. Then
two coats of solution No. 2, and the wood
allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a
coat of raw linseed oil is to be applied,
using a cloth instead of a brush, in order
to get a thinner coat of the oil.
A writer in the Journal of Applied
Microscopy states that he has used this
method upon some old laboratory tables
which had been finished in the usual way,
the wood having been filled oiled, and
varnished. After scraping off the varnish
down to the wood, the solutions were ap-
plied, and the result was very satisfac-
tory.
After some experimentations the for-
mula was modified without materially
affecting the cost, and apparently in-
creasing the resistance of the wood to the
action of strong acids and alkalies. The
modified formula follows:
1.
Iron sulphate 4 parts
Copper sulphate 4 parts
Potassium permanga-
nate 8 parts
Water, q. s 100 parts
2.
Aniline. 12 parts
Hydrochloric acid .... 18 parts
Water, q. s 100 parts
Or:
Aniline hydrochlorate 15 parts
Water, q. s 100 parts
Solution No. 2 has not been changed,
except to arrange the parts per hundred.
The method of application is the same,
except that after solution No. 1 has dried,
the excess of the solution which has dried
upon the surface of the wood is thor-
oughly rubbed off before the application
of solution No. 2. The black color does
not appear at once, but usually requires
a few hours before becoming ebony
black. The linseed oil may be diluted
with turpentine without disadvantage,
and after a few applications the surface
will take on a dull and not displeas-
ing polish. The table tops are easily
cleaned by washing with water or suds
after a course of work is completed, and
the application of another coat of oil
puts them in excellent order for another
course of work. Strong acids or alkalies
when spilled, if soon wiped off, have
scarcely a perceptible effect.
A slate or tile top is expensive not only
in its original cost, but also as a destroyer
of glassware. Wood tops when painted,
oiled, or paraffined have objectionable
features, the latter especially in warm
weather. Old table tops, after the paint
or oil is scraped off down to the wood,
take the above finish nearly as well as
the new wood.
To Make Wood Acid- and Chlorine-
Proof. — Take 6 pounds of wood tar and
12 pounds rosin, and melt them together
in an iron kettle, after which stir in 8
pounds finely powdered brick dust.
The damaged parts must be cleaned
perfectly and dried, whereupon they
may be painted over with the warm
preparation or filled up and drawn off,
leaving the film on the inside.
Protecting Cement Against Acid. — A
paint to protect cement against acid is
obtained by mixing pure asbestos, very
finely powdered, with a thick solution of
10
; ADHESIVES
sodium/ silicate', Tlte" sodium silicate
must be as alkaline as possible. • . ']The
asbestos is first rubbed with a small
quantity of the silicate, until a cake is
obtained and then kept in well-closed
vessels. For use this cake is simply
thinned with a solution of the silicate,
which furnishes a paint two or three ap-
plications of which protect the walls of
reservoirs, etc., against any acid solid
or liquid. This mass may also be em-
ployed for making a coating of sand-
stone.
To Make Corks Impermeable and
Acid-Proof. — Choose your corks care-
fully. Then plunge them into a solution
of gelatin or common glue, 15 parts, in
24 parts of glycerine and 500 parts of
water, heated to 44° or 48° C. (112°-120°
F.), and keep them there for several
hours. On removing the corks, which
should be weighted down in the solution,
dry them in the shade until they are free
from all surplus moisture. They are now
perfectly tight, retaining at the same
time the greater portion of their elasticity
and suppleness. To render them acid-
proof, they should be treated with a
mixture of vaseline, 2 parts, and paraffine
7 parts, heated to about 105° F. This
second operation may be avoided by
adding to the gelatin solution a little
ammonium dichromate and afterwards
exposing the corks to the light.
Lining for Acid Receptacles. — Plates
are formed of 1 part of brown slate, 2
of powdered glass, and 1 of Portland
cement, the whole worked up with sili-
cate of soda, molded and dried. Make
a cement composed of ground slate and
silicate of soda and smear the surface
for the lining; then, while it is still plastic,
apply the plates prepared as above de-
scribed. Instead of these plates, slabs
of glass or porcelain or similar substances
may be employed with the same cement.
ACACIA, MUCILAGE OF :
See Adhesives under Mucilages.
ACID-PROOF GLASS:
See Glass.
ACID-RESISTING PAINT:
See Paint.
ACIDS, SOLDERING:
See Solders.
ACID STAINS FROM THE SKIN, TO
REMOVE :
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ACID TEST FOR VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
Adhesives
GLUES :
Manufacture of Glue. — I. — The usual
process of removing the phosphate of
lime from bones for glue-making pur-
poses by means of dilute hydrochloric
acid has the disadvantage that the acid
cannot be regenerated. Attempts to use
sulphurous acid instead have so far
proved unsuccessful, as, even with the
large quantities used, the process is very
slow. According to a German invention
this difficulty with sulphurous acid can
be avoided by using it in aqueous solu-
tion under pressure. The solution of
the lime goes on very rapidly, it is
claimed, and no troublesome precipi-
tation of calcium sulphite takes place.
Both phosphate of lime and sulphurous
acid are regenerated from the lyes by
simple distillation.
II. — Bones may be treated with suc-
cessive quantities of combined sulphur-
ous acid and water, from which the heat
of combination has been previously dis-
sipated, the solution being removed after
each treatment, before the bone salts
dissolved therein precipitate, and before
the temperature rises above 74° F. — •
U. S. Pat. 783,784.
III. — A patent relating to the process
for treating animal sinews, preparatory
for the glue factory, has been granted to
Florsheim, Chicago, and consists in im-
mersing animal sinews successively in
petroleum or benzine to remove the outer
fleshy animal skin; in a hardening or
preserving bath, as boric acid, or alum
or copper sulphate; and in an alkaline
bath to remove fatty matter from the
fibrous part of the sinews. The sinews
are afterwards tanned and disintegrated.
Test for Glue.— The more water the
glue takes up, swelling it, the better it
is. Four ounces of the glue to be exam-
ined are soaked for about 12 hours in a
cool place in 4 pounds of cold water. If
the glue has dissolved after this time, it
is of bad quality and of little value; but if
it is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing
double, it is good; if it weighs up to 16
ounces, it is very good; if as much as
20 ounces, it may be called excellent.
To Prevent Glue from Cracking.— To
prevent glue from cracking, which fre-
quently occurs when glued articles are
ADHESIVES
II
exposed to the heat of a stove, a little
chloride of potassium is added. This
prevents the glue from becoming dry
enough to crack. Glue thus treated will
adhere to glass, metals, etc., and may
also be used for pasting on labels.
Preventing the Putrefaction of Strong
Glues. — The fatty matter always existing
in small quantity in sheets of ordinary
glue affects the adhesive properties and
facilitates the development of bacteria,
and consequently putrefaction and de-
composition. These inconveniences are
remedied by adding a small quantity of
caustic soda to the dissolved glue. The
soda prevents decomposition absolutely;
with the fatty matter it forms a hard soap
which renders it harmless.
Liquid Glues. —
I. — Glue 3 ounces
Gelatin 3 ounces
Acetic acid 4 ounces
Water 2 ounces
Alum 30 grains
Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and
add:
II. — Alcohol 1 fluidounce
Brown glue, No. 2. . 2 pounds
Sodium carbonate . . 11 ounces
Water 3£ pints
Oil of clove 160 minims
Dissolve the soda in the water, pour
the solution over the dry glue, let stand
over night or till thoroughly soaked and
swelled, then heat carefully on a water
bath until dissolved. When nearly cold
stir in the oil of cloves.
By using white glue, a finer article, fit
for fancy work, may be made.
III. — Dissolve by heating 60 parts of
borax in 420 parts of water, add 480
parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts
of glucose and heat carefully with con-
tinued stirring, to complete solution;
replace the evaporated water and pour
through flannel.
The glue made in this way remains
clear quite a long time, and possesses
great adhesive power; it also dries very
quickly, but upon careless and extended
heating above 90° C. (194° F.), it is apt
to turn brown and brittle.
IV. — Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot)
water over 50 parts of Cologne glue and
allow to soak over night. Next day the
swelled glue is dissolved with moderate
heat, and if still too thick, a little more
water is added. When this is done, add
from 2£ to 3 parts of crude nitric acid,
stir well, and fill the liquid glue in well-
corked bottles. This is a good liquid
steam glue.
V. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in a
quart of water for a few hours, then melt
the glue by heating it, together with the
unabsorbed water, then stir in J pound
dry white lead, and when that is well
mixed pour in 4 fluidounces of alcohol
and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer.
VI. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in 1 \
pints of cold water for 5 hours, then add
3 ounces of zinc sulphate and 2 fluid-
ounces of hydrochloric acid, and keep
the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at
175° to 190° F. The glue remains liquid
and may be used for sticking a variety of
materials.
VII. — A very inexpensive liquid glue
may be prepared by first soaking and
then dissolving gelatin in twice its own
weight of water at a very gentle heat;
then add glacial acetic acid in weight
equal to the weight of the dry gelatin.
It should be remembered, however, that
all acid glues are not generally applica-
ble.
VIII.— Glue 200 parts
Dilute acetic acid. . 400 parts
Dissolve by the aid of heat and add:
Alcohol 25 parts
Alum 5 parts
IX. — Glue 5 parts
Calcium chloride. . 1 part
Water 1 part
X. — Sugar of lead 1 i drachms
Alum 1 i drachms
Gum arabic 2£ drachms
Wheat flour 1 " av. Ib.
Water, q. s.
Dissolve the gum in 2 quarts of warm
water; when cold mix in the flour, and
add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved
in wrater; heat the whole over a slow fire
until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it
cool, and add enough gum water to bring
it to the proper consistence.
XI. — Dilute 1 part of official phos-
phoric acid with 2 parts of water and neu-
tralize the solution with carbonate of
ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal
quantity of water, warm it on a water
bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to
form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in
well-stoppered bottles.
XII. — Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small
pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate of lime.
By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly
and remains liquid, when cold, without
loss of adhesive power. Any desirable
consistence can be secured by varying
the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick
glue retains its muddy color, while a thin
solution becomes clear on standing.
The saccharate of lime is prepared by
ADHESIVES
dissolving 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of
water, and after adding £ part of the
weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heat-
ing the whole from 149° to 185° F., allow-
ing it to macerate for several days, shaking
it frequently. The solution, which has
the properties of mucilage, is then de-
canted from the sediment.
XIII. — In a solution of borax in water
soak a good quantity of glue until it has
thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off
the surplus solution and then put on
the water bath and melt the glue. Cool
down until the glue begins to set, then
add, drop by drop, with agitation,
enough acetic acid to check the tendency
to solidification. If, after becoming
quite cold, there is still a tendency to
solidification, add a few drops more of
the acid. The liquid should be of the
consistence of ordinary mucilage at all
times.
XIV.— Gelatin 100 parts
Cabinetmakers' glue. 100 parts
Alcohol 25 parts
Alum 2 parts
Acetic acid, 20 per
cent 800 parts
Soak the gelatin and glue with the
acetic acid and heat on a water bath until
fluid; then add the alum and alcohol.
XV.— Glue 10 parts
Water 15 parts
Sodium salicylate. ... 1 part
XVI. — Soak 5 parts of Cologne glue
in an aqueous calcium chloride solution
(1 : 4) and heat on the water bath until
dissolved, replacing the evaporating
water; or slack 100 parts of lime with 150
parts of hot water, dissolve 60 parts of
sugar in 180 parts of water, and add 15
parts of the slacked lime to the solution,
heating the whole to 75° C. (167° F.).
Place aside for a few days, shaking from
time to time. In the clear sugar-lime
solution collected by decanting soak 60
parts of glue and assist the solution by
moderate heating.
XVII.— Molasses, 100 parts, dissolved
in 300 parts of water, 25 parts of quick-
lime (slaked to powder), being then
stirred in arid the mixture heated to 167°
F. on a water bath, with frequent stir-
rings. After settling for a few days a
large portion of the lime will have dis-
solved, and the clear, white, thick solu-
tion, when decanted, behaves like rubber
solution and makes a highly adherent
coating.
XVIII.— Dissolve bone glue, 250
parts, by heating in 1,000 parts of water,
and add to the solution barium perox-
ide 10 parts, sulphuric acid (66° B.) 5
parts, and water 15 parts. Heat for 48
hours on the water bath to 80° C. (176°
F.). Thus a syrupy liquid is obtained,
which is allowed to settle and is then
decanted. This glue has no unpleasant
odor, and does not mold.
JQX. — A glue possessing the adhesive
qualities of ordinary joiners' glue, but
constituting a pale yellow liquid which is
ready for use without requiring heating
and possesses great resistance to damp-
ness, is produced by treating dry casein
with a diluted borax solution or with
enough ammonia solution to cause a
faintly alkaline reaction. The prepara-
tion may be employed alone or mixed
with liquid starch in any proportion.
Glue for Celluloid. — I. — Two parts
shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor, and 4
parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm
place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix
wood, tin, and other bodies to celluloid.
The glue must be kept well corked up.
II. — A collodion solution may be used,
or an alcoholic solution of fine celluloid
shavings.
Glue to Form Paper Pads. —
I. — Glue 3^ ounces
Glycerine 8 ounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Pour upon the glue more than enough
water to cover it and let stand for several
hours, then decant the greater portion of
the water; apply heat until the glue is
dissolved, and add the glycerin. If the
mixture is too thick, add more water.
II. — Glue 6 ounces
Alum 30 grains
Acetic acid £ ounce
Alcohol 1 1 ounces
Water 6§ ounces
Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a
water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow
to cool and add the alcohol.
III. — Glue 5 ounces
Water 1 ounce
Calcium chloride. . 1 ounce
Dissolve the calcium chloride in the
water, add the glue, macerate until it is
thoroughly softened, and then heat until
completely dissolved.
IV. — Glue 20 ounces
Glycerine 5 ounces
Syrupy glucose. . . 1 ounce
Tannin 50 grains
Cover the glue with cold water, and let
stand over night. In the morning pour
off superfluous water, throw the glue on
muslin, and manipulate so as to get rid
of as much moisture as possible, then put
in a water bath and melt. Add the glyc-
ADHESIVES
erine and syrup, and stir well in. Fi-
nally, dissolve the tannin in the smallest
quantity of water possible and add.
This mixture must be used hot.
V. — Glue 15 ounces
Glycerine 5 ounces
Linseed oil 2 ounces
Sugar 1 ounce
Soak the glue as before, melt, add the
sugar and glycerine, continuing the heat,
and finally add the oil gradually under
constant stirring.
This must be used hot.
Glue for Tablets.—
I. — Glue 3^ ounces
Glycerine 8 ounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Pour upon the glue more than enough
water to cover it and let stand for several
hours, then decant the greater portion of
the water; apply heat until the glue is
dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the
mixture is too thick, add more water.
II. — Glue 6 ounces
Alum 30 grains
Acetic acid £ ounce
Alcohol if ounces
Water G| ounces
Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a
water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow
to cool and add the alcohol.
III. — Glue. . .- 5 ounces
Water 1 ounce
Calcium chloride. . . 1 ounce
Dissolve the calcium chloride in the
water, add the glue, macerate until it is
thoroughly softened, and then apply heat
until completely dissolved.
IV. — Glue, 1 pound; glycerine, 4 ounces;
glucose syrup, 2 tablespoonfuls; tannin,
-^o ounce. Use warm, and give an hour
to dry and set on the pads. This can be
colored with any aniline dye.
Marine Glue. — Marine glue is a prod-
uct consisting of shellac and caoutchouc,
which is mixed differently according to
the use for which it is required. The
quantity of benzol used as solvent gov-
erns the hardness or softness of the glue.
I. — One part Para caoutchouc is dis-
solved in 12 parts benzol; 20 parts pow-
dered shellac are added to the solution,
and the mixture is carefully heated.
II. — Stronger glue is obtained by dis-
solving 10 parts good crude caoutchouc
in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which
solution is poured slowly and in a fine
stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted
in a kettle, stirring constantly and heat-
ing. Pour the finished glue, after the
solvent has almost evaporated and the
mass has become quite uniform, into flat
molds, in which it solidifies into very hard
tablets of dark brown or black color.
For use, these glue tablets are first soaked
in boiling water and then heated over a
free flame until the marine glue has be-
come thinly liquid. The pieces to be
glued are also warmed and a very durable
union is obtained.
III. — Cut caoutchouc into small pieces
and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and
agitation. Add to this solution pow-
dered shellac, and heat the whole, con-
stantly stirring until combination takes
place, then pour it on metal plates to form
sheets. When used it must be heated to
248° F., and applied with a brush.
Water-Proof Glues.— I.— The glue is
put in water till it is soft, and subse-
quently melted in linseed oil at moderate
heat. This glue is affected neither by
water nor by vapors.
II. — Dissolve a small quantity of san-
darac and mastic in a little alcohol, and
add a little turpentine. The solution is
boiled in a kettle over the fire, and an
equal quantity of a strong hot solution of
glue and isinglass is added. Then filter
through a cloth while hot.
III. — Water-proof glue may also be
produced by the simple addition of
bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue
solution, and subsequent exposure to the
air.
IV. — Mix glue as usual, and then add
linseed oil in the proportion of 1 part oil
to 8 parts glue. If it is desired that the
mixture remain liquid, \ ounce of nitric
acid should be added to every pound of
glue. This will also prevent the glue
from souring.
V.— In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol
dissolve 60 parts of sandarac and as
much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of
white oil of turpentine. Next, prepare a
rather strong glue solution and add about
the like quantity of isinglass, heating the
solution until it commences to boil; then
slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin
paste forms, which can still be filtered
through a cloth. Heat the solution be-
fore use and employ like ordinary glue.
A connection effected with this glue is
not dissolved by cold water and even
resists hot water for a long time.
Vl.— Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue
in cold water for 12 hours and in another
vessel for the same length of time 150
parts of isinglass in a mixture of lamp
spirit and water. Then dissolve both
masses together on the water bath in a
suitable vessel, thinning, if necessary,
with some hot water. Next add 100
ADHESIVES
parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot
through linen.
VII. — Ordinary glue is kept in water
until it swells up without losing its shape.
Thus softened it is placed in an iron
crucible without adding water; then add
linseed oil according to the quantity of
the glue and leave this mixture to boil
over a slow fire until a gelatinous mass
results. Such glue unites materials in a
very durable manner. It adheres firmly
and hardens quickly. Its chief advan-
tage, however, consists in that it neither
absorbs water nor allows it to pass
through, whereby the connecting places
are often destroyed. A little borax will
prevent putrefaction.
VIII. — Bichromate of potassium 40
parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55 parts;
alum, 5 parts. Dissolve the glue in a
little water and add the bichromate of
potassium and the alum.
IX. — This preparation permits an ab-
solutely permanent gluing of pieces of
cardboard, even when they are moist-
ened by water. Melt together equal
parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of
this take 9 parts, and add to it 3 parts of
boiled linseed oil and 1 A parts of litharge.
Place this over the fire and stir it till all
the ingredients are intimately mixed.
The mixture may be diluted with a little
benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be
warm when used.
Glue to Fasten Linoleum on Iron
Stairs. — I. — Use a mixture of glue, isin-
glass, and dextrin which, dissolved in
water and heated, is given an admixture
of turpentine. The strips pasted down
must be weighted with boards and brick
on top until the adhesive agent has hard-
ened.
II. — Soak 3 parts of glue in 8 parts
water, add A part hydrochloric acid and
f part zinc vitriol and let this mixture
boil several hours. Coat the floor and
the back of the linoleum with this.
Press the linoleum down uniformly and
firmly and weight it for some time.
Glue for Attaching Gloss to Precious
Metals. — Sandarac varnish, 15 parts;
marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil, 5 parts;
white lead, 5 parts; Spanish white, 5
parts; turpentine, 5 parts. Triturate all to
form a rather homogeneous paste. This
glue becomes very hard and resisting.
Elastic Glue. — Although elastic glue is
less durable than rubber, and will not
stand much heat, yet it is cheaper than
rubber, and is not, like rubber affected
by oil colors. Hence it is largely used
for printing rollers and stamps. For
stamps, good glue is soaked for 24 hours
in soft water. The water is poured off,
and the swollen glue is melted and mixed
with glycerine and a little salicylic acid
and cast into molds. The durability is in-
creased by painting the mass with a solu-
tion of tannin, or, better, of bichromate
of potassium. Printing rollers require
greater firmness and elasticity. The
mass for them once consisted solely of
glue and vinegar, and their manufacture
was very difficult. The use of glycerine
has remedied this, and gives great elas-
ticity without adhesiveness, and has re-
moved the liability of moldiness. Swol-
len glue, which has been superficially
dried, is fused with glycerine and cast
into oil molds. Similar mixtures are
used for casting plaster ornaments, etc.,
and give very sharp casts. A mass con-
sisting of glue and glycerine is poured
over the model in a box. When the mold
is removed, it is painted with plaster out-
side and with boiled oil inside, and can
then be used many times for making re-
productions of the model.
Glue for Paper and Metal. — A glue
which will keep well and adhere tightly
is obtained by diluting 1,000 parts by
weight of potato starch in 1,200 parts by
weight of water and adding 50 parts by
weight of pure nitric acid. The mixture
is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking
care to stir frequently. It is afterwards
boiled to a thick and transparent consist-
ency, diluted with water if there is occa-
sion, and then there are added in the
form of a screened powder, 2 parts of sal
ammoniac and 1 part of sulphur flowers.
Glue for Attaching Cloth Strips to Iron.
— Soak 500 parts of Cologne glue in the
evening with clean cold water in a clean
vessel; in the morning pour off the water,
place the softened glue without admix-
ture of water into a clean copper or
enamel receptacle, which is put on a mod-
erate low fire (charcoal or steam appa-
ratus). During the dissolution the mass
must be continually stirred with a wood-
en trowel or spatula. If the glue is too
thick, it is thinned with diluted spirit,
but not with water. As soon as the glue
has reached the boiling point, about 50
parts of linseed oil varnish (boiled oil) is
added to the mass with constant stirring.
When the latter has been stirred up well,
add 50 parts of powdered colophony and
shake it into the mass with stirring,
subsequently removing the glue from the
fire. In order to increase the binding
qualities and to guard against moisture,
it is well still to add about 50 parts of
isinglass, which has been previously cut
ADHESIVES
15
into narrow strips and placed, well
beaten, in a vessel, into which enough
spirit of wine has been poured to cover
all. When dissolved, the last - named
mass is added to the boiling glue with
constant stirring. The adhesive agent
is now ready for use and is employed hot,
it being advisable to warm the iron also.
Apply glue only to a surface equivalent
to a single strip at a time. The strips are
pressed down with a stiff brush or a wad
of cloth.
Glue for Leather or Cardboard. — To
attach leather to cardboard dissolve
good glue (softened by swelling in water)
with a little turpentine and enough water
in an ordinary glue pot, and then having
made a thick paste with starch in the
proportion of 2 parts by weight, of starch
powder for every 1 part, by weight, of
dry glue, mix the compounds and allow
the mixture to become cold before appli-
cation to the cardboard.
For Wood, Glass, Cardboard, and all
Articles of a Metallic or Mineral Char-
acter.— Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts,
Flemish glue 20 parts, hydrated lime 15
parts, powdered turpentine 5 parts, alum
5 parts acetic acid 5 parts. Dissolve the
glue with the acetic acid, add the alum,
then the hydrated lime, and finally the
turpentine and the boiled linseed oil.
Triturate all well until it forms a homo-
geneous paste and keep in well-closed
flasks. Use like any other glue.
Glue for Uniting Metals with Fabrics.
— Cologne glue of good quality is soaked
and boiled down to the consistency of
that used by cabinetmakers. Then add,
with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes
until a moderately thick, homogeneous
mass results. Use hot and press the
pieces well together during the drying.
For tinfoil, about 2 per cent of boracic
acid should be added instead of the wood
ashes.
Glue or Paste for Making Paper
Boxes. —
Chloral hydrate 5 parts
Gelatin, white 8 parts
Gum arabic 2 parts
Boiling water 30 parts
Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum
arabic in a porcelain container, pour the
boiling water over the mixture and let
stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stir-
ring several times during the day. In
cold weather this is apt to get hard and
stiff, but this may be obviated by stand-
ing the container in warm water for a
few minutes. This paste adheres to any
surface whatever.
Natural Glue for Cementing Porcelain,
Crystal Glass, etc.— The large shell
snails which are found in vineyards have
at the extremity of their body a small,
whitish bladder filled with a substance
of greasy and gelatinous aspect. If this
substance extracted from the bladder is
applied on the fragments of porcelain or
any body whatever, which are juxtaposed
by being made to touch at all parts, they
acquire such adhesion that if one strives
to separate them by a blow, they are
more liable to break at another place
than the cemented seam. It is necessary
to give this glue sufficient time to dry per-
fectly, so as to permit it to acquire the
highest degree of strength and tenacity.
Belt Glue. — A glue for belts can be
prepared as follows: Soak 50 parts of
gelatin in water, pour off the excess of
water, and heat on the water bath. With
good stirring add, first, 5 parts, by
weight, of glycerine, then 10 parts, by
weight, of turpentine, and 5 parts, by
weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin
with water as required. The ends of the
belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and
warmed; then the hot glue is applied, and
the united parts are subjected to strong
pressure, allowing them to dry thvs for
24 hours before the belts are used.
Chromium Glue for Wood, Paper, and
Cloth. — I. — (a) One-half pound strong
glue (any glue if color is immaterial,
white fish glue otherwise); soak 12 hours
in 12 fluidounces of cold water, (b) One-
quarter pound gelatin; soak 2 hours in
12 fluidounces cold water, (c) Two
ounces bichromate of potassium dis-
solved in 8 fluidounces boiling water.
Dissolve (a) after soaking, in a glue pot,
and add (6). After (a) and (fc) are mixed
and dissolved, stir in (c). This glue is
exceedingly strong, and if the article
cemented be exposed to strong sunlight
for 1 hour, the glue becomes perfectly
waterproof. Of course, it is understood
that the exposure to sunlight is to be
made after the glue is thoroughly dry.
The one objectionable feature of this
cement is its color, which is a yellow-
brown. By substituting chrome alum
in place of the bichromate, an olive color
is obtained.
II. — Use a moderately strong gelatin
solution (containing 5 to 10 per cent of
dry gelatin), to which about 1 part of
acid chromate of potassium in solution is
added to every 5 parts of gelatin. This
mixture has the property of becoming in-
soluble by water through the action of
sunlight under partial reduction of the
chromic acid.
16
ADHESIVES
Fireproof Glue. —
Raw linseed oil 8 parts
Glue or gelatin 1 part
Quicklime 2 parts
Soak the glue or gelatin in the oil for
10 to 12 hours, and then melt it by gently
heating the oil, and when perfectly fluid
stir in the quicklime until the whole
mass is homogeneous, then spread out in
layers to dry gradually, out of the sun's
rays. For use, reheat the glue in a glue
pot in the ordinary way of melting glue.
CEMENTS.
Under this heading will be found only
cements for causing one substance to ad-
here to another. Cements used prima-
rily as fillers, such as dental cements,
will be found under Cements, Putties,
etc.
Cutlers' Cements for Fixing Knife
Blades into Handles. —
I. — Rosin 4 pounds
Beeswax 1 pound
Plaster of Paris or
brickdust 1 pound
II.— Pitch 5 pounds
Wood ashes 1 pound
Tallow 1 pound
III. — Rosin, 12; sulphur flowers, 3;
iron filings, 5. Melt together, fill the
handle while hot, and insert the instru-
ment.
IV. — Plaster of Paris is ordinarily
used for fastening loose handles. It is
made into a moderately thick paste with
water run into the hole in the head of the
pestle, the handle inserted and held in
place till the cement hardens. Some add
sand to the paste, and claim to get better
results.
V. — Boil together 1 part of caustic soda,
3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts of water till
homogeneous and add 4 parts of plaster
of Paris. The paste sets in half an hour
and is but little affected by water.
VI. — 'Equal quantities of gutta percha
and shellac are melted together and well
stirred. This is best done in an iron cap-
sule placed on a sandbath and heated
over a gas furnace or on the top of a
stove. The combination possesses both
hardness and toughness, qualities that
make it particularly desirable in mend-
ing mortars and pestles. In using,
the articles to be cemented should be
warmed to about the melting point of the
mixture and retained in proper position
until cool, when they are ready for use.
VII.— Rosin 600 ) Parts
Sulphur 150 }• by
Iron filings 250 ) weight.
Pour the mixture, hot, into the opening
of the heated handle and shove in the
knife likewise heated.
VIII. — Melt sufficient black rosin, and
incorporate thoroughly with it one-fifth its
weight of very fine silver sand. Make
the pestle hot, pour in a little of the mix-
ture, then force the handle well home,
and set aside for a day before using.
IX. — Make a smooth, moderately soft
paste with litharge and glycerine; fill the
hole in the pestle with the cement, and
firmly press the handle in place, keeping
it under pressure for three or four days.
Cements for Stone. — I. — An excellent
cement for broken marble consists of 4
parts of gypsum and 1 part of finely
powdered gum arabic. Mix intimately.
Then with a cold solution of borax make
into a mortarlike mass. Smear on each
face of the parts to be joined, and fasten
the bits of marble together. In the
course of a few days the cement becomes
very hard and holds very tenaciously.
The object mended should not be touched
for several days. In mending colored
marbles the cement may be given the hue
of the marble by adding the color to the
borax solution.
II. — A cement which dries instanta-
neously, qualifying it for all sorts of re-
pairing and only presenting the disad-
vantage of having to be freshly prepared
each time, notwithstanding any subse-
?uent heating, may be made as follows:
n a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 to
5 parts of rosin (or preferably mastic)
and 1 part of beeswax. This mixture
must be applied rapidly it being of ad-
vantage slightly to heat tne surfaces to be
united, which naturally must have been
previously well cleaned.
III.— Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, 15
parts; kaolin, 5 parts; mix. and imme-
diately before use stir with a correspond-
ing amount of potash water glass.
IV.— Cement on Marble Slabs.— The
whole marble slab is thoroughly warmed
and laid face down upon a neatly cleaned
planing bench upon which a woolen cloth
is spread so as not to injure the polish of
the slab. Next apply to the slab very
hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plaster
of Paris on the glue in a thin even layer,
stirring the plaster rapidly into the ap-
plied glue by means of a strong spatula,
so that a uniform glue-plaster coating
is formed on the warm slab. Before this
has time to harden tip the respective piece
of furniture on the slab. The frame, like-
wise warmed, will adhere very firmly to the
slab after two days. Besides, this process
has the advantage of great cleanliness.
ADHESIVES
17
V. — The following is a recipe used by
marble worKers, and which probably
can be used to advantage: Flour of sul-
phur, 1 part; hydrocnlorate of am-
monia, 2 parts; iron filings, 16 parts.
The above substances must be reduced
to a powder, and securely preserved
in closely stoppered vessels. When the
cement is to be employed, take 20 parts
very fine iron filings and 1 part of the
above powder; mix them together with
enough water to form a manageable
paste. This paste solidifies in 20 days
and becomes as hard as iron. A recipe
for another cement useful for joining
small pieces of marble or alabaster is as
follows: Add £ pint of vinegar to J pint
skimmed milk; mix the curd with the
whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and suffi-
cient powdered quicklime sifted in with
constant stirring so as to form a paste.
It resists water and a moderate degree of
heat.
VI. — Cement for Iron and Marble. —
For fastening iron to marble or stone a
good cement is made as follows: Thirty
parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts iron filings,
A part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar
to a fluid paste fresh for use.
Cement -for Sandstones. — One part
sulphur and 1 part rosin are melted
separately; the melted masses are mixed
and 3 parts litharge and 2 parts ground
glass stirred in. The latter ingredients
must be perfectly dry, and have been
well pulverized and mixed previously.
Equally good cement is obtained by
melting together 1 part pitch and iV part
wax, and mixing with 2 parts brickdust.
The stones to be cemented, or be-
tween the joints of which the putty is to
be poured, must be perfectly dry. If
practicable, they should be warmed a
little, and the surfaces to which the putty
is to adhere painted with oil varnish
once or twice. The above two formulae
are of especial value in case the stones
are very much exposed to the heat of the
sun in summer, as well as to cold, rain,
and snow in winter. Experience has
shown that in these instances the above-
mentioned cements give better satisfac-
tion than the other brands of cement.
Cements for Attaching Objects to
Glass.—
Rosin 1 part
Yellow wax 2 parts
Melt together.
To Attach Copper to Glass.— Boil 1
part of caustic soda and 3 parts of co-
lophony in 5 parts of water and mix with
the like quantity of plaster of Paris.
This cement is not attacked by water,
heat, and petroleum. If, in place of the
plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead,
or slaked lime is used, the cement hard-
ens more slowly.
To Fasten Brass upon Glass. —Boil to-
gether 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of
rosin, 3 parts of gypsum, and 5 parts of
water. The cement made in this way
hardens in about half an hour, hence i't
must be applied quickly. During the
preparation it should be stirred con-
stantly. All the ingredients used must
be in a finely powdered state.
Uniting Glass with Horn. — (1) A solu-
tion of 2 parts of gelatin in 20 parts water
is evaporated up to one-sixth of its volume
and J mastic dissolved in ^ spirit added
and some zinc white stirred in. The
putty is applied warm; it dries easily
and can be kept a long time. (2) Mix
gold size with the equal volume of water
glass.
To Cement Glass to Iron. —
I. — Rosin 5 ounces
Yellow wax 1 ounce
Venetian red 1 ounce
Melt the wax and rosin on a water
bath and add, under constant stirring, the
Venetian red previously well dried. Stir
until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Ve-
netian red from settling to the bottom.
II. — Portland cement 2 ounces
Prepared chalk 1 ounce
Fine sand 1 ounce
Solution of sodium silicate
enough to form a semi-
liquid paste.
III. — Litharge 2 parts
White lead 1 part
Work into a pasty condition by using
3 parts boiled linseed oil, 1 part copal
varnish.
Celluloid Cements. — I. — To mend brok-
en draughting triangles and other cellu-
loid articles, use 3 parts alcohol and 4
parts ether mixed together and applied to
the fracture with a brush until the edges
become warm. The edges are then
stuck together, and left to dry for at least
24 hours.
II. — Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts.
Dissolve and add equal quantity (by
weight) of shellac to this solution. N
III. — If firmness is desired in putting
celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the following
gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A
compound of 2 parts shellac, 3 parts
spirit of camphor, and 4 parts strong
alcohol.
18
ADHESIVES
IV. — Shellac 2 ounces
Spirits of camphor. . 2 ounces
Alcohol, 90 per cent. . 6 to 8 ounces
V. — Make a moderately strong glue or
solution of gelatin. In a dark place or
a dark room mix with the above a small
amount of concentrated solution of potas-
sium dichromate. Coat the back of the
label, which must be clean, with a thin
layer of the mixture. Strongly press the
label against the bottle and keep the two
in close contact by tying with twine or
otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some
hours; this causes the cement to be insol-
uble even in hot water.
VI. — Lime av. oz. 1
White of egg av. oz. 2£
Plaster of Paris av. oz. 5|
Water fl. oz. 1
Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix
it with the white of egg by trituration,
forming a uniform paste. Dilute with
water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of
Paris, and use the cement immediately.
The surfaces to be cemented must first
be moistened with water so that the ce-
ment will readily adhere. The pieces
must be firmly pressed together and kept
in t>his position for about 12 hours.
Cementing Celluloid and Hard-Rubber
Articles. — I. — Celluloid articles can be
mended by making a mixture com-
posed of 3 parts of alcohol and 4 parts of
ether. This mixture should be kept in
a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid
articles are to be mended, the broken
surfaces are painted over with the alcohol
and ether mixture until the surfaces
soften: then press together and bind and
allow to dry for at least 24 hours.
II. — Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor
in 4 parts of alcohol; dissolve an equal
weight of shellac in such strong camphor
solution. The cement is applied warm
and the parts united must not be dis-
turbed until the cement is hard. Hard-
rubber articles are never mended to form
a strong joint.
III. — Melt together equal parts of
gutta percha and real asphaltum. The
cement is applied hot, and the broken
surfaces pressed together and held in
place while cooling.
Sign-Letter Cements.—
I. — Copal varnish 15 parts
Drying oil 5 parts
Turpentine (spirits). 3 parts
Oil of turpentine 2 parts
Liquefied glue 5 parts
Melt all together on a water bath until
well mixed, and then add 10 parts slaked
lime.
II. — Mix 100 parts finely powdered
white litharge with 50 parts dry white
lead, knead together 3 parts linseed oil
varnish and 1 part copal varnish into a
firm dough. Coat the side to be attached
with this, removing the superfluous ce-
ment. It will dry quickly and become
very hard.
III. — Copal varnish 15 parts
Linseed-oil varnish . 5 parts
Raw turpentine 3 parts
Oil of turpentine. ... 2 parts
Carpenters' glue, dis-
solved in water ... 5 parts
Precipitated chalk . . 10 parts
IV. — Mastic gum 1 part
Litharge, lead 2 parts
White lead 1 part
Linseed oil 3 parts
Melt together to a homogeneous mass.
Apply hot. To make a thorough and
reliable job, the letters should be heated
to at least the temperature of the cement.
To Fix Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass.
— I. — The glass must be entirely clean and
polished, and the medium is prepared in
the following manner: One ounce fish
glue or isinglass is dissolved in water
so that the latter covers the glue. When
this is dissolved a quart of rectified spir-
it of wine is added, and enough water is
poured in to make up one-quarter the
whole. The substance must be kept well
corked.
II. — Take i quart of the best rum
and I ounce fish glue, which is dissolved
in the former at a moderate degree of
heat. Then add ? quart distilled water,
and filter through a piece of old linen.
The glass is laid upon a perfectly level
table and is covered with this substance
to the thickness of J inch, using a clean
brush. Seize the gold leaf with a
pointed object and place it smoothly
upon the prepared mass, and it will be
attracted by the glass at once. After 5
minutes hold the glass slightly slanting
so that the superfluous mass can run off,
and leave the plate in this position for 24
hours, when it will be perfectly dry. Now
trace the letters or the design on a piece
of paper, and perforate the lines with a
thick needle, mak:ng the holes -^ inch
apart. Then place the perforated paper
upcwi the surface of the glass, and stamp
the tracery on with powdered chalk. The
paper pattern is then carefully removed,
and the accurate design will remain upon
the gold. The outlines are now filled
out with an oily gold mass, mixed with
a little chrome orange and diluted with
boiled oil or turpentine. When all is
dry the superfluous gold is washed off
ADHESIVES
19
with water by means of a common rag.
The back of the glass is then painted
with a suitable color.
Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass. —
To affix enamel letters to glass, first
clean the surface of the glass perfectly,
leaving no grease or sticky substance
of any kind adhering to the surface.
Then with a piece of soap sketch the out-
lines of the design. Make the proper
division of the guide lines, and strike off
accurately the position each letter is to
occupy. Then to the back of the letters
apply a cement made as follows: White
lead ground in oil, 2 parts; dry white
lead, 3 parts. Mix to a soft putty con-
sistency with good copal varnish.
With a small knife or spatula apply
the cement to the back of the letters,
observing especial care in getting the
mixture well and uniformly laid around
the inside edges of the letter. In at-
taching ^he letters to the glass make sure
to expel the air from beneath the char-
acters, and to do this, work them up
and down and sidewise. If the weather
be at all warm, support the letters
while drying by pressing tiny beads of
sealing wax against the glass, close to
the under side or bottom of the letters.
With a putty knife, keenly sharpened
on one edge, next remove all the sur-
plus cement. Give the letters a hard,
firm pressure against the glass around
all edges to securely guard against the
disruptive attacks of moisture.
The seepage of moisture beneath the .
surface of the letters is the main cause
of their early detachment from the glass.
The removal of the letters from the
glass may be effected by applying tur-
pentine to the top of the characters,
allowing it to soak down and through
the cement. Oxalic acid applied in the
same way will usually slick the letters
off in a trice.
Cement for Porcelain Letters. — Slake
15 parts of fresh quicklime in 20 parts of
water. Melt 50 parts of caoutchouc and
50 parts of linseed-oil varnish together,
and bring the mixture to a boil. While
boiling, pour the liquid o>n the slaked
lime, little by little, under constant stir-
ring. Pass the mixture, while still hot,
through muslin, to remove any possible
lumps, and let cool. It takes the cement
2 days to set completely, but when dry
it makes a joint that will resist a great
deal of strain. By thinning the mixture
down with oil of turpentine, a brilliant,
powerfully adhesive varnish is obtained.
Water - Glass Cements. — I. — W7ater
<rlass (sodium of potassium silicate), which
is frequently recommended for cement--
ing glass, does not, as is often asserted,
form a vitreous connection between the
joined surfaces; and, in fact, some of
the commercial varieties will not even
dry, but merely form a thick paste,
which has a strong affinity for moisture.
Good 30° B. water glass is, however,
suitable for mending articles that are ex-
posed to heat, and is best applied to sur-
faces that have been gently warmed;
when the pieces are put together they
should be pressed warmly, to expel any
superfluous cement, and then heated
strongly.
To repair cracked glasses or bottles
through which water will leak, water
glasses may be used, the application
being effected in the following easy
manner: The vessel is warmed to induce
rarefaction of the internal air, after
which the mouth is closed, either by a
cork in the case of bottles, or by a piece
of parchment or bladder if a wide-
mouthed vessel is under treatment.
While still hot, the outside of the
crack is covered with a little glass, and
the vessel set aside to cool, whereupon
the difference between the pressure of the
external and internal air will force the
cement into the fissure and close it
completely. All that is then necessary
is to take off the cover and leave the
vessel to warm for a few hours. Sub-
sequently rinse it out with lime water,
followed by clean water, and it will then
hold any liquid, acids and alkaline fluids
alone excepted.
II. — When water glass is brought into
contact with calcium chloride, a cal-
cium silicate is at once formed which
is insoluble in water. It seems possible
that this reaction may be used in bind-
ing together masses of sand, etc. The
process indicated has long been used in
the preservation of stone which has be-
come "weathered." The stone is first
brushed with the water glass and after-
wards with a solution of calcium chlor-
ide. The conditions here are of course
different.
Calcium chloride must riot be con-
founded with the so-called " chloride of
lime " which is a mixture of calcium hy-
pochlorite and other bodies.
To Fasten Paper Tickets to Glass —To
attach paper tickets to glass, the em-
ployment of water glass is efficacious.
Care should be taken to spread this prod-
uct on the glass and not on the paper,
and then to apply the paper dry, which
should be done immediately. When the
solution is dry the paper cannot be de-
ADHES1VES
tached. The silicate should be some-
what diluted. It is spread on the glass
with a rag or a small sponge.
JEWELERS' CEMENTS.
Jewelers and goldsmiths require, for
the cementing of genuine and colored
gems, as well as for the placing of col-
ored folio under certain stones, very
adhesive gluing agents, which must,
however, be colorless. In this respect
these are distinguished chiefly by the
so-called diamond cement and the regu-
lar jewelers' cement. Diamond ce-
ment is much esteemed by jewelers for
cementing precious stones and corals,
but may also be employed with ad-
vantage for laying colored fluxes of
glass on white glass. The diamond
cement is of such a nature as to be able
to remain for some time in contact with
water without becoming soft. It ad-
heres best between glass or between pre-
cious stones. It is composed as follows:
Isinglass 8 parts, gum ammoniac 1 part,
galbanum 1 part, spirit of wine 4 parts.
Soak the isinglass in water with admix-
ture of a little spirit of wine and add the
solution of the gums in the remainder
of the spirit of wine. Before use, heat
the diamond cement a little so as to
soften it. Jewelers' cement is used for
similar purposes as is the diamond ce-
ment, and is prepared from: Isinglass
(dry) 10 parts, mastic varnish 5 parts.
Dissolve the isinglass in very little water,
adding some strong spirit of wine. The
mastic varnish is prepared by pouring
a mixture of highly rectified spirit of
wine and benzine over finely powdered
mastic and dissolving it in the smallest
possible quantity of liquid. The two
solutions of isinglass and mastic are in-
timately ground together in a porcelain
dish.
Armenian Cement. — The celebrated
" Armenian " cement, so called formerly
used by Turkish and Oriental jewelers
generally, for setting precious stones,
" facing diamonds," rubies, etc., is made
as follows:
Mastic gum 10 parts
Isinglass (fish glue) . 20 parts
Gum ammoniac .... 5 parts
Alcohol absolute 60 parts
Alcohol, 50 per cent. . 35 parts
Water 100 parts
Dissolve the mastic in the absolute
alcohol; dissolve, by the aid of gentle
heat, on the water bath, the isinglass in
the water, and add 10 parts of the dilute
alcohol. Now dissolve the ammoniacum
in the residue of the dilute alcohol. Add
the first solution to the second, mix thor-
oughly by agitation and then add the
solution of gum ammoniac and stir well
in. Finally put on the water bath, and
keeping at a moderate heat, evaporate
the whole down to 175 parts.
Cement for Enameled Dials.— The
following is a good cement for enameled
dials, plates, or other pieces: Grind into
a fine powder 2A parts of dammar rosin
and 2i parts of copal, using colorless
pieces if possible. Next add 2 parts
of Venetian turpentine and enough spirit
of wine so that the whole forms a thick
paste. To this grind 3 parts of the finest
zinc white. The mass now has the
consistency of prepared oil paint. To
remove the yellow tinge of the cement
add a trifle of Berlin blue to the zinc
white. Finally, the whole is heated until
the spirit of wine is driven off and a molt-
en mass remains, which is allowed to cool
and is kept for use. Heat the parts to be
cemented.
Watch-Lid Cement.— The hardest ce-
ment for fixing on watch lids is shellac.
If the lids are exceedingly thin the en-
graving will always press through. Be-
fore cementing it on the inside of the lid,
in order not to injure the polish, it is
coated with chalk dissolved in alcohol,
which is first allowed to dry. Next melt
the shellac on the stick, heat the watch
lid and put it on. After the engraving
has been done, simply force the lid off and
'remove the remaining shellac from the
latter by light tapping. If this does not
remove it completely lay the lid in alco-
hol, leaving it therein until all the shel-
lac has dissolved. All that remains to be
done now is to wash out the watch lid.
Jewelers' Glue Cement. — Dissolve on
a water bath 50 parts of fish glue in
a little 95-per-cent alcohol adding 4
parts, by weight, of gum ammoniac.
On the other hand, dissolve 2 parts, by
weight, of mastic in 10 parts, by weight,
of alcohol. Mix these two solutions and
preserve in a well-corked flask. For
use it suffices to soften it on the water
bath.
Casein Cements. —
I. — Borax 5 parts
Water 95 parts
Casein, sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the borax in water and in-
corporate enough casein to produce a
mass of the proper consistency.
II. — The casein is made feebly alka-
line by means of soda or potash lye and
ADHESIVES
then subjected for about 24 hours to a
temperature of 140° F. Next follow
the customary admixture, such as lime
and water glass, and finally, to accom-
plish a quicker resinification, substances
containing tannin are added. For tan-
nic admixtures to the partially disinte-
grated casein, slight quantities — about
1 per cent — of gallic acid, cutch, or
quercitannic acid are employed. The
feebly alkaline casein cement contain-
ing cannic acid is used in the well-known
manner for the gluing together of wood.
For Metals.— Make a paste with 16
ounces casein, 20 ounces slaked lime, and
20 ounces of sand, in water.
For Glass. — I. — Dissolve casein in a
concentrated solution of borax.
II. — Make a paste of casein and
water glass.
Pasteboard and Paper Cement. — I. —
Let pure glue swell in cold water; pour
and press off the excess; put on the
water bath and melt. Paper or other
material cemented with this is then
immediately, before the cement dries,
submitted to the action of formaldehyde
and dried. The cement resists the action
of water, even hot.
II. — Melt together equal parts of
good pitch and gutta percha. To 9
parts of this mass add 3 parts of boiled
linseed oil and ^ part litharge. The
heat is kept up until, with constant
stirring, an intimate union of all the in-
gredients has taken place. The mix-
ture is diluted with a little benzine or
oil of turpentine and applied while still
warm. The cement is waterproof.
III. — The National Druggist says
that experience with pasting or cement-
ing parchment paper seems to show
that about the best agent is casein
cement, made by dissolving casein in
a saturated aqueous solution of borax.
IV. — The following is recommended
for paper boxes:
Chloral hydrate 5 parts
Gelatin, white 8 parts
Gum arabic 2 parts
Boiling water 30 parts
Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum
arabic in a porcelain container, pour the
boiling water over the mixture and let
stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous
stirring several times during the day.
In cold weather this is apt to get hard
and stiff, but this may be obviated by
standing the container in warm water
for a few minutes. This paste adheres
to any surface whatever.
Waterproof Cements for Glass, Stone-
ware, and Metal. — I. — Make a paste of
sulphur, sal ammoniac, iron filings, and
boiled oil.
II. — Mix together dry : Whiting, 6
pounds; plaster of Paris, 3 pounds;
sand, 3 pounds; litharge, 3 pounds;
rosin, 1 pound. Make to a paste with
copal varnish.
III. — Make a paste of boiled oil, 6
pounds; copal, 6 pounds; litharge, 2
pounds; white lead, 1 pound.
IV. — Make a paste with boiled oil,
3 pounds; brickdust 2 pounds; dry
slaked lime, 1 pound.
V. — Dissolve 93 ounces of alum and
93 ounces of sugar of lead in water to
concentration. Dissolve separately 152
ounces of gum arabic in 25 gallons of
water, and then stir in 62 i pounds of
flour. Then heat to a uniform paste
with the metallic salts, but take care not
to boil the mass.
VI. — For Iron and Marble to Stand in
Heat. — In 3 pounds of water dissolve
first, 1 pound water glass and then 1
pound of borax. With the solution
make 2 pounds of clay and 1 pound of
barytes, first mixed dry, to a paste.
VII.— Glue to Resist Boiling Water.—
Dissolve separately in water 55 pounds
of glue and a mixture of 40 pounds of
bichromate and 5 pounds of alum. Mix
as wanted.
VIII. (Chinese Glue).— Dissolve shel-
lac in 10 times its weight of ammonia.
IX. — Make a paste of 40 ounces of
dry slaked lime 10 ounces of alum, and
50 ounces of white of egg.
X.— Alcohol 1,000 parts
Sandarac 60 parts
Mastic 60 parts
Turpentine oil 60 parts
Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and
add the oil and stir in. Now prepare
a solution of equal parts of glue and
isinglass, by soaking 125 parts of each
in cold water until it becomes saturated,
pouring and pressing off the residue, and
melting on the water bath. This should
produce a volume of glue nearly equal
to that of the solution of gums. The
latter should, in the meantime, have
been cautiously raised to the boiling
point on the water bath, and then mixed
with the hot glue solution.
It is said that articles united with
this substance will stand the strain of
cold water for an unlimited time, and
it takes hot water even a long time to
affect it.
ADHESiVES
JQ. — Burgundy pitch . 6 parts
Gutta percha 1 part
Pumice stone, in fine
powder 3 parts
Melt the gutta percha very carefully
add the pumice stone, and lastly the
pitch, and stir until homogeneous.
Use while still hot. This cement will
withstand water and dilute mineral
acids.
LEATHER AND RUBBER CEMENTS.
1. — Use a melted mixture of gutta
percha and genuine asphalt, applied
hot. The hard-rubber goods must be
kept pressed together until the cement
has cooled.
II. — A cement which is effective for
cementing rubber to iron and which is
especially valuable for fastening rub-
ber bands to bandsaw wheels is made
as follows: Powdered shellac, 1 part;
strong water of ammonia, 10 parts. Put'
the shellac in the ammonia water and
set it away in a tightly closed jar for
3 or 4 weeks. By that time the mixture
will become a perfectly liquid transpar-
ent mass and is then ready for use.
When applied to rubber the ammonia
softens it, but it quickly evaporates, leav-
ing the rubber in the same condition as
before. The shellac clings to the iron
and thus forms a firm bond between the
iron and the rubber.
III. — Gutta percha white. 1 drachm
Carbon disulphide. . 1 ounce
Dissolve, filter, and add:
India rubber 15 grains
Dissolve.
Cement for Metal on Hard Rubber. —
I. — Soak good Cologne glue and boil down
so as to give it the consistency of joiners'
glue, and add with constant stirring,
enough sifted wood ashes until a homo-
geneous, moderately thick mass results.
Use warm and fit the pieces well together
while drying.
How to Unite Rubber and Leather. —
II. — Roughen both surfaces, the leather
and the rubber, with a sharp glass edge;
apply to both a diluted solution of gutta
percha in carbon bisulphide and let this
solution soak into the material. Then
press upon each surface a skin of gutta
percha fa of an inch in thickness between
rolls. The two surfaces are now united
in a press, which should be warm but not
hot. This method should answer in all
cases in which it is applicable. The
other prescription covers cases in which
a press cannot be used. Cut 30 parts of
rubber into small pieces, and dissolve
it in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the
vessel being placed on a water bath of
30° C. (86° F.). Further, melt 10 parts
of rubber with 15 of colophony, and add
35 parts of oil of turpentine. When the
rubber has been completely dissolved,
the two liquids may be mixed. The
resulting cement must be kept well
corked.
To Fasten Rubber to Wood.— I —
Make a cement by macerating virgin
gum rubber, or as pure rubber as can be
ad, cut in small pieces, in just enough
naphtha or gasoline to cover it. Let it
stand in a very tightly corked or sealed
jar for 14 days, or a sufficient time to
become dissolved, shaking the mixture
daily.
II. — Dissolve pulverized gum shellac,
1 ounce, in 9i ounces of strong ammonia.
This of course must be kept tightly
corked. It will not be as clastic as the
first preparation.
III. — Fuse together shellac and gutta
percha in equal weights.
IV. — India rubber 8 ounces
Gutta percha 4 ounces
Isinglass 2 ounces
Bisulphide of carbon 32 ounces
V. — India rubber 5 ounces
Gum mastic 1 ounce
Chloroform 3 ounces
VI. — Gutta percha 16 ounces
India rubber 4 ounces
Pitch 4 ounces
Shellac 1 ounce
Linseed oil 1 ounce
Amalgamate by heat.
VII. — Mix 1 ounce of oil of turpentine
with 10 ounces of bisulphide of carbon in
which as much gutta percha as possible
has been dissolved.
VIII. — Amalgamate by heat:
Gutta percha.'. . . . 100 ounces
Venice turpentine. 80 ounces
Shellac 8 ounces
India rubber 2 ounces
Liquid storax 10 ounces
IX. — Amalgamate by heat:
India rubber 100 ounces
Rosin 15 ounces
Shellac 10 ounces
Then dissolve in bisulphide of carbon.
X. — Make the following solutions sep-
arately and mix:
(a) India rubber 5 ounces
Chloroform 140 ounces
(b) India rubber 5 ounces
Rosin 2 ounces
Venice turpentine. 1 ounce
Oil of turpentine. . 20 ounces
ADHESIVES
Cement for Patching Rubber Boots
and Shoes. —
I. — India rubber, finely
chopped 100 parts
Rosin 15 parts
Shellac. . . . . .. 10 parts
Carbon disulphide,
q. s. to dissolve.
This will not only unite leather to
leather, india rubber, etc., but will unite
rubber to almost any substance.
II. — Caoutchouc, finely cut 4 parts
India rubber, finely
cut ;•••••. 1 part
Carbon disulphide ... 32 parts
Dissolve the caoutchouc in the carbon
disulphide, add the rubber, let macer-
ate a few days, then mash with a palette
knife to a smooth paste. The vessel in
which the solution is made in both
instances above must be kept tightly
closed, and should have frequent agita-
tions.
III.— Take 100 parts of crude rubber
or caoutchouc, cut it up in small bits,
and dissolve it in sufficient carbon bisul-
phide, add to it 15 parts of rosin and
10 parts of gum lac. The user must
not overlook the great inflammability and
exceedingly volatile nature of the carbon
bisulphide.
Tire Cements. —
I. — India rubber 15 grams
Chloroform 2 ounces
Mastic ^ ounce
Mix the india rubber and chloroform
together, and when dissolved, the mastic
is added in powder. It is then allowed
to stand a week or two before using.
II. — The following is recommended as
very good for cementing pneumatic tires to
bicycle wheels:
Shellac 1 ounce
Gutta percha 1 ounce
Sulphur 45 grains
Red lead 45 grains
Melt together the shellac and gutta per-
cha, then add, with constant stirring, the
sulphur and red lead. Use while hot.
III. — Raw gutta percha. . 16 ounces
Carbon bisulphide. 72 ounces
Eau de Cologne. . . . 2§ ounces
This cement is the subject of an Eng-
lish patent and is recommended for
patching cycle and motor tires, insulat-
ing electric wires, etc.
IV. — A good thick shellac varnish with j
which a small amount of castor oil has (
been mixed will be found a very excellent i
bicycle rim cement. The formula rec-
ommended by Edel is as follows:
Shellac 1 pound
Alcohol ] pint
Mix and dissolve, then add:
Castor oil £ ounce
The castor oil prevents the cement
from becoming hard and brittle.
A cement used to fasten bicycle tires
may be made by melting together at a
gentle heat equal parts of gutta percha
and asphalt. Apply hot. Sometimes a
small quantity each of sulphur and red
lead is added (about 1 part of each to 20
parts of cement).
Cements for Leather.—
I. — Gutta percha 20 parts
Syrian asphalt, pow-
dered 20 parts
Carbon disulphide . . 50 parts
Oil of turpentine ... 10 parts
The gutta percha, shredded fine, is
dissolved in the carbon disulphide and
turpentine oil. To the solution add the
asphalt and set away for several days,
or until the asphalt is dissolved. The
cement should have the consistency of
honey. If the preparation is thinner
than this let it stand, open, for a few
days. Articles to be patched should
first be washed with benzine.
II. — Glue 1 ounce
•Starch paste 2 ounces
Turpentine 1 drachm
.Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the g.'ue in sufficient water
with heat; mix the starch paste with
water; add the turpentine, and finally
mix with the glue while hot.
III. — Soak for one day 1 pound of .com-
mon glue in enough water to cover, and
1 pound of isinglass in ale droppings.
Then mix together and heat gently un-
til boiling. At this paint add a little
Eure tannin and keep boiling for an
our. If the glue and isinglass when
mixed are too thick, add water. This
cement should be used warm and the
jointed leather pressed tightly together
for 12 hours.
IV. — A waterproof cement for leather
caoutchouc, or balata, is prepared by
dissolving gutta percha, caoutchouc,
benzoin, gum lac, mastic, etc., in some
convenient solvent like carbon disul-
phide, chloroform, ether, or alcohol.
The best solvent, however, in the case of
gutta percha, is carbon disulphide and
ether for mastic. The most favorable
proportions are as follows: Gutta percha,
200 to 300 parts to 100 parts of the sol-
vent, and 75 to 85 parts of mastic to 100
parts of ether. From 5 to 8 parts of
the former solution are mixed with 1
ADHESIVES
part of the latter, and the mixture is
then boiled on the water bath, or in a
vessel fitted with a water jacket.
V. — Make a solution of 200 to 300
parts of caoutchouc, gutta percha india
rubber, benzoin, or similar gum, in 1,000
parts of carbon disulphide, chloroform,
ether, or alcohol, and of this add 5 to 8
parts to a solution of mastic (75 to 125
parts) in ether 100 parts, of equal volume
and boil together. Use hot water as the
boiling agent, or boil very cautiously on
the water bath.
VI. — Forty parts of aluminum ace-
tate, 10° B., 10 parts of glue, 10 parts
of rye flour. These materials are either
to be simultaneously mixed and boiled,
or else the glue is to be dissolved in the
aluminum acetate, and the flour stirred
into the solution. This is an excellent
cement for leather, and is used in so-
called art work with leather, and with
leather articles which are made of sev-
eral pieces. It is to be applied warm.
Rubber Cement for Cloth.— The fol-
lowing formulas have been recommended:
I. — Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloroform,
3 parts. Dissolve and add gum mastic
(powder) 1 part.
II. — Gutta percha, 16 parts; india rub-
ber. 4 parts; pitch, 2 parts; shellac, 1
part; linseed oil, 2 parts. Reduce the
solids to small pieces, melt together with
the oil and mix well.
III. — The following cement for mend-
ing rubber shoes and tires will answer
similar purposes:
Caoutchouc in shavings .. 10 } parts
Rosin 4V by
'Gum turpentine 40 ) weight.
Oil turpentine, enough.
Melt together first the caoutchouc and
rosin, then add the gum turpentine, and
when all is liquefied, add enough of oil
of turpentine to preserve it liquid. A
second solution is prepared by dissolv-
ing together:
Caoutchouc 10 ( p£rts
Chloroform 280 I weight.
For use these two solutions are mixed.
Wash the hole in the rubber shoe
over with the cement, then a piece of
linen dipped in it is placed over it; as
soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the
cement is then applied as thickly as re-
quired.
CEMENTS FOR METALS AND FOR AT-
TACHING VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
TO METALS:
Cements for Iron. — I. — To make a
good cement for iron on iron, make a
thick paste, with water, of powdered!
iron, 60 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts,
and sulphur flowers. 1 part. Use while
fresh.
II. — Sulphur flowers, 6 parts; dry
white lead 6 parts, and powdered borax,
1 part. Mix by sifting and keep as a
dry powder in a closed tin box. To use,
make into a thin paste with strong sul-
phuric acid and press together immedi-
ately. This cement will harden in 5
days.
III. — Graphite 50 pounds
Whiting 15 pounds
Litharge 15 pounds
Make to a paste with a boiled oil.
IV. — Make a paste of white lead and
asbestos.
V. — Make a paste of litharge and glyc-
erine. Red lead may be added. This
also does for stone.
VI. — Make a paste of boiled oil of
equal parts of white lead, pipe clay, and
black oxide of manganese.
VII. — Make iron filings to a paste with
water glass.
VIII. — Sal ammoniac. ... 4 ounces
Sulphur 2 ounces
Iron filings 32 ounces
Make as much as is to be used at once
to a paste with a little water. This re-
mark applies to both the following dry
recipes:
IX. — Iron filings 160 ounces
Lime 80 ounces
Red lead 16 ounces
Alum 8 ounces
Sal ammoniac... 2 ounces
X. — Clay 10 ounces
Iron filings 4 ounces
Salt 1 ounce
Borax 1 ounce
Black oxide of
manganese ... 2 ounces
XL— Mix:
Iron filings 180 ounces
Lime 45 ounces
Salt 8 ounces
XIL— Mix:
Iron filings 140 ounces
Hydraulic lime . . 20 ounces
Sand 25 ounces
Sal ammoniac. . . 3 ounces
Either of these last two mixtures is
made into a paste with strong vinegar
just before use.
XIII. — Mix equal weights of zinc
oxide and black oxide of manganese
into a paste with water glass.
XIV. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; hy-
drated lime, 10 parts; glue de nerfs (of
sinews), 5 parts; fat drying oils 5 parts;
ADHESIVES
powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of
turpentine, 2 parts. Dissolve the glue
de nerjs on the water bath, add all the
other substances, and triturate inti-
mately.
XV. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; pow-
dered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of tur-
pentine, 2 parts; powdered fish glue, 3
parts; iron filings, 3 parts; ocher, 10
parts.
XVI. — To make a cement for cast iron,
take 16 ounces cast-iron borings; 2 ounces
sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce sulphur. Mix
well and keep dry. When ready to use
take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of
cast-iron borings and mix thoroughly into
a stiff paste, adding a little water.
XVII.— Litharge 2 parts
Boiled linseed oil 2 parts
White lead 1 part
Copal 1 part
Heat together until of a uniform con-
sistence and apply warm.
XVIII. — A cement for iron which is
said to be perfectly waterproof and fire-
proof is made by working up a mixture
of equal weights of red lead and litharge
with glycerine till the mass is perfectly
homogeneous and has the consistency
of a glazier's putty. This cement is
said to answer well, even for very large
iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for
stopping up cracks in large iron pans of
steam pipes.
Cement for Metal, Glass, and Porce-
lain.— A soft alloy is prepared by mixing
from 30 to 36 parts of copper precipi-
tated in the form of a fine brown powder,
with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity
of 1.85 in a cast-iron or porcelain mor-
tar and incorporating by stirring with 75
parts of mercury, the acid being after-
wards removed by washing with water.
In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam be-
comes harder than tin, but when heated to
692° F., it can be kneaded like wax. In
this condition it is applied to the surface
to be cemented, and will fix them firmly
together on cooling.
Dissolve 1 drachm of gum mastic in 3
drachms of spirits of wine. In a sep-
arate vessel containing water soak 3
drachms of isinglass. When thoroughly
soaked take it out of the water and put
it into 5 drachms of spirits of wine. Take
a piece of gum ammoniacum the size of
a large pea and grind it up finely with a
little spirits of wine and isinglass until
it has dissolved. Then mix the whole
together with sufficient heat. It will be
found most convenient to place the
vessel on a hot-water bath. Keep this
cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and
when it is to be used, place it in hot
water until dissolved.
Cements for Fastening Porcelain to
Metal. — I. — Mix equal parts of alcohol
(95 per cent) and water, and make a
paste by incorporating the liquid with
300 parts of finely pulverized chalk and
250 parts of starch.
II. — Mix finely powdered burned lime,
300 parts, with powdered starch, 250
parts, and moisten the mixture with a
compound of equal parts of water and
alcohol of 95 per cent until a paste
results.
III. — Cement or plaster can be used
if the surfaces are sufficiently large;
cement is the better article when the
object may be exposed to moisture or
subjected to much pressure. A process
which can be recommended consists in
mingling equal weights of chalk, brick-
dust, clay, and Romain cement. These
materials, pulverized and sifted are in-
corporated with linseed oil in the pro-
portion of half a kilo of oil to 3 kilos of
the mingled powder. The Romain or
Romanic cement is so designated from
the district in France where the calca-
reous stone from which it is prepared is
found in considerable quantity. Al-
though its adhesive qualities are unques-
tioned, there are undoubtedly American
cements equally as good.
IV.— Acetate of lead, 46 £ parts by
weight; alum, 46 £ parts by weight;
gum arabic, 76 parts by weight; flour,
500 parts by weight; water, 2,000 parts
by weight. Dissolve the acetate of lead
and the alum in a little water; on the
other hand dissolve the gum arabic in
water by pouring, for instance, the 2
liters of boiling water on the gum arabic
reduced to powder. When the gum has
dissolved, add the flower, put all on the
fire, and stir well with a piece of wood;
then add the solution of acetate of lead
and the alum; agitate well so as to pre-
vent any lumps from forming; retire from
the fire before allowing to boil. This
glue is used cold, does not peel off, and
is excellent to make wood, glass, card-
board, etc. adhere to metals.
Cement for Leather and Iron. — To
face a cast-iron pulley with leather apply
acetic acid to the face of the pulley with
a brush, which will roughen it by rusting,
and then when dry apply a cement made
of 1 pound of fish glue and % pound of
common glue, melted in a mixture of
alcohol and water. The leather should
then be placed on the pulley and dried
under pressure.
ADHESIVES
Amber Cements. — I. — To solder to-
gether two pieces of yellow amber,
slightly heat the parts to be united and
moisten them with a solution of caustic
soda; then bring the two pieces together
quickly.
II. — Dissolve in a closed bottle 75
parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60 parts of
chloroform. Add 15 parts of mastic and
let the mixture stand in the cold until all
has dissolved.
III. — Moisten the pieces to be joined
with caustic potash and press them to-
gether when warm. The union is so
perfect that no trace of the juncture is
visible. A concentrated alcoholic solu-
tion of the rosin over the amber, soluble
in alcohol, is also employed for this pur-
pose. Another medium is a solution
of hard and very finely powdered copal
in pure sulphuric ether. Coat both
fractures, previously well cleaned, with
this solution and endeavor to combine
them intimately by tying or pressing.
IV. — In 30 parts by weight of copal
dissolve 30 parts by weight of alumina
by means of a water bath. Bathe the
surface to be cemented with this gelat-
inous liquid, but very slightly. Unite
the fractures and press them together
firmly until the mixture is dry.
Acid -Proof Cements for Stoneware
and Glass. — I. — Mix with the aid of heat
equal weights of pitch, rosin, and plaster
of Paris.
II. — Mix silicate of soda to a paste
with ground glass.
III. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with
china clay.
IV. — Mix coal tar to a paste with
pipe clay.
V. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with
quicklime.
VI.— Mix with the aid of heat: Sul-
phur, 100 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds;
rosin, 2 pounds. Thicken with ground
glass.
VII.— Mix with the aid of heat:
Rosin, 2 pounds; sulphur, 2 pounds;
brickdust, 4 pounds.
VIII.— Mix with the aid of heat 2
pounds of india rubber and 4 pounds of
boiled oil. Thicken with 12 pounds of
pipe clay.
IX. — Fuse 100 pounds of india rub-
ber with 7 pounds of tallow. Then
make to a paste with dry slaked lime and
finally add 20 pounds of red lead.
X. — Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin,
24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds; boiled
oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds.
Acid-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals,
etc.—
I. — Powdered asbestos ... 2 parts
Ground baryta 1 part
Sodium water-glass so-
lution 2 parts
Mix.
II. — To withstand hot nitric acid the
following is used:
Sodium water-glass so-
lution 2 parts
Sand 1 part
Asbestos 1 part
Mix.
III. — Asbestos 2 parts
Sulphate of barium. . . 3 parts
Silicate of sodium .... 2 parts
By mixing these ingredients a cement
strong enough to resist the strongest
nitric acid will be obtained.
IV. — If hot acids are dealt with, the
following mixture will be found to possess
still more resistant powers:
Silicate of sodium (50°
Baume) 2 parts
Fine sand 1 part
Asbestos 1 part
Both these cements take a few hours
to set. If the cement is wanted to set
at once, use silicate of potassium, instead
of silicate of sodium. This mixture will
be instantly effective and possesses the
same power of resistance as the other.
Directions for Repairing Broken Glass,
Porcelain, Bric-a-Brac. — Broken glass,
china, bric-a-brac, and picture frames,
not to name casts, require each a differ-
ent cement — in fact, several different
cements. Glass may be beautifully
mended to look at, but seldom so as to
be safely used. For clear glass the best
cement is isinglass dissolved in gin. Put
2 ounces of isinglass in a clean, wide-
mouthed bottle, add half a pint of gin,
and set in the sun until dissolved. Shake
well every day, and before using strain
through double lawn, squeezing very
gently.
Spread a white cloth over the mend-
ing table and supply it with plenty of
clean linen rags, strong rubber bands,
and narrow white tape, also a basin of
tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash
the broken glass very clean, especially
along the break, but take care not to
chip it further. Wet both broken edges
well with the glue, using a camel's-hair
pencil. Fit the break to a nicety, then
slip on rubber bands length- and cross-
wise, every way they will hold. If they
will not hold true as upon a stemmed
ADHESIVES
thing, a vase or jug or scent bottle,
string half a dozen bands of the same
size and strength upon a bit of tape, and
tie the tape about neck or base before
beginning the gluing. After the parts
are joined slip another tape through the
same bands and tie it above the fracture;
thus with all their strength the bands
Eull the break together. The bands can
e used thus on casts of china — in fact,
to hold anything mendable. In glass
mending the greater the pressure the
better — if only it stops short of the break-
ing point. Properly made the isinglass
cement is as clear as water. When the
pieces fit true one on the other the break
should be hardly visible, if the pressure
has been great enough to force out the
tiny bubbles, which otherwise refract
the light and make the line of cleavage
distressingly apparent. Mended glass
may be used to hold dry things — as rose
leaves, sachets, violet powder, even can-
dies and fruits. But it will not bear
to have any sort of liquid left standing
in it, nor to be washed beyond a quick
rinsing in tepid water. In wriping always
use a very soft towel, and pat the vessel
dry with due regard to its infirmities.
Mend a lamp loose in the collar with
sifted plaster of Paris mixed to a very
soft paste with beaten white of egg.
Have everything ready before wetting
up the plaster, and work quickly so it
may set in place. With several lamps to
mend wet enough plaster for one at a
time. It takes less than 5 minutes to
set, and is utterly worthless if one tries
working it over. Metal work apart
from the glass needs the soldering iron.
Dust the break well with powdered rosin,
tie the parts firmly together, lay the stick
of solder above the break, and fetch the
iron down on it lightly but firmly. When
the solder cools, remove the melted rosin
with a cloth dipped in alcohol.
Since breakables have so unhappy a
knack of fracturing themselves in such
fashion they cannot possibly stand up-
right, one needs a sand box. It is only
a box of handy size with 8 inches of
clean, coarse sand in the bottom. Along
with it there should be some small leaden
weights, with rings cast in them, run-
ning from an ounce to a quarter pound.
Two of each weight are needed. In use,
tapes are tied to the rings, and the pair of
weights swung outside the edges of the
box, so as to press in place the upper
part of a broken thing to which the tapes
have been fastened.
Set broken platters on edge in the sand
box with the break up. The sand will
hold them firm, and the broken bit can
be slapped on. It is the same with
plates and saucers. None of these com-
monly requires weighting. But very
fine pieces where an invisible seam is
wanted should be held firm until partly
set, then have the pair of heaviest weights
accurately balanced across the broken
piece. The weights are also very useful
to prop and stay topheavy articles and
balance them so they shall not get out
of kilter. A cup broken, as is so com-
mon with cups, can have the tape passed
around it, crossing inside the handle,
then be set firmly in the sand, face down,
and be held by the hanging weights
pulling one against the other.
The most dependable cement for china
is pure white lead, ground in linseed oil,
so thick it will barely spread smoothly
with a knife. Given time enough to
harden (some 3 months), it makes a seam
practically indestructible. The objec-
tion to it is that it always shows in a
staring white line. A better cement for
fine china is white of egg and plaster. Sift
the plaster three times and tie a generous
pinch of it loosely in mosquito netting.
Then beat the egg until it will stick to
the plaster. Have the broken egg very
clean, cover both with the beaten egg,
dust well with the plaster, fit together at
once, tie, using rubber bands if possible,
wrap loosely in very soft tissue paper,
and bury head and ears in the sand box,
taking care that the break lies so that
the sand will hold it together. Leave in
the box 24 hours. After a week the su-
perfluous plaster may be gently scraped
away.
General Formulas for Cements for
Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crock-
ery, Plaster, and Meerschaum. — I. —
An excellent cement for joining broken
crockery and similar small articles can
be made by melting 4 or 5 parts of rosin
(or, better still, gum mastic) with 1 part
of beeswax in an iron spoon or similar
vessel. Apply while hot. It will not
stand great heat.
II. — An excellent cement for porcelain
and stoneware is obtained by mixing 20
parts of fish glue with an equal weight
of crystallizable acetic acid and evapo-
rate the mixture carefully to a syrupy
consistency so that it forms a gelatinous
mass on cooling. For use the cement
thus obtained is made liquid again by
heating and applied to the fracture with
a brush. The pieces should now be
pressed firmly together, by winding a
twine tightly around them, until the
cement has hardened.
III. — For luting vessels made of glass,
ADHESIVES
porcelain, etc., which are to be used to
hold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos
powder, water glass, and an indifferent pow-
der (permanent white, sand, etc.) is rec-
ommended. To begin with, asbestos
powder is made into a pulp with three
or four times the quantity (weight) of a
solution of soda water glass (of 30°
B.). The same is exceedingly fat and
plastic, but is not very well suited for
working, as it shrinks too much and
cracks when drying. By an addition of
fine writing sand of the same weight
as the asbestos used, the mass can be
made less fat, so as to obviate shrinking,
without detracting from the plasticity.
Small vessels were molded from it and
dried in the air, to be tested afterwards.
Put in water, the hardened mass becomes
soft again and falls apart. Brought into
contact, however, with very strong min-
eral acids, it becomes even firmer and
withstands the liquid perfectly. Con-
centrated nitric acid was kept in such
small vessels without the mass being
visibly attacked or anything penetrating
it. The action of the acid manifestly
has the effect that silicic acid is set free
from the water glass in excess, which
clogs up the pores entirely and con-
tributes to the lutation. Later on, the
mass cannot be dissolved by pure water
any more. The mass is also highly fire-
proof. One of the molded bodies can
be kept glowing in a Bunsen gas flame
for about half a day after treatment with
acid, without slagging in the least. For
many purposes it ought to be welcome
to have such a mass at hand. It cannot
be kept ready for use, however, as it
hardens a few hours after being pre-
pared; if potash water glass is used, in-
stead of the soda 'iomposition, this in-
duration takes place still more quickly.
IV. — Cement for Glass, Porcelain, etc.
Isinglass (fish glue) . . 50 parts
Gum ammoniac 4 parts
Gum mastic 2 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent . . 10 parts
Water, q. s.
Soak the isinglass in cold water over
night, or until it has become swollen and
soft throughout. In the morning throw
off any superfluous fluid and throw the
isinglass on a clean towel or other coarse
cloth, and hang it up in such a way that
any free residual water will drain away.
Upon doing this thoroughly depends, in
a great measure, the strengtn of the
cement. When the gelatin has become
thoroughly drained put it into a flask
or other container, place it in the water
bath and heat carefully until it becomes
fluid, being careful not to let it come to
a boil, as this injures its adhesive prop-
erties (the same may be said in regard
to glues and gelatins of all kinds). Dis-
solve the gums in the alcohol and add
the solution to the gelatin after remov-
ing the same from the water bath, and
letting it cool down to about 160° F.
Stir well together or mix by agitation.
The following precautions must be
observed: 1. Both surfaces to be joined
must be absolutely clean, free from dust,
dirt, grease, etc. 2. Where the cement
is one that requires the application of
heat before use, the objects to be united
should also be heated to a point at least
as high as the melting point of the cement.
Otherwise, the cement on application is
chilled and consequently fails to make a
lasting joint. 3. The thinner the layer
of cement the stronger the joint; avoid,
therefore, using too much of the binding
material. Cover both surfaces to be
united, coapt them exactly, and press
together as closely as possible. In this
manner the thinnest possible layer is
secured. 4. Bind the parts securely to-
gether, and let remain without loosening
or attempting to use the article for 2 or
3 days or longer. A liquid cement ac-
quires its full strength only after evapor-
ation of the fluids used as solvents, and
this can occur only from the infinitesimal
line of exposed surface.
V. — Liquid Porcelain Cement. — Fish
glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20 parts;
heat together until the mass gelatinizes
on cooling.
VI. — Take 1 ounce of Russian isin-
glass, cut in small pieces, and bruise
well; then add 6 ounces of warm water,
and leave it in a warm place for from
24 to 48 hours. Evaporate the re-
sulting solution to about 3 ounces.
Next dissolve ^ ounce of mastic in 4
ounces of alcohol, and add the mastic
solution to the isinglass in small quan-
tities at a time, continuing the heat and
stirring well. While still hot strain the
liquid through muslin.
VII. — For optical glasses, Canada bal-
sam is employed, the two pieces being firm-
ly pressed together. After a while, espe-
cially by humidity, punctures will form,
and the glass is separated by a mist of
varying reflexes, while in certain climates
the heat will melt the balsam. For all
other glass articles which require only
simple treatment, such as knobs of covers,
plates, etc., silicate of potash is excel-
lent.
VIII. — Glass Cement.— Dissolve in 150
parts of acetic acid of 96 per cent, 100
ADHESIVES
parts of gelatin by the use of heat, and
add ammonium bichromate, 5 parts.
This glue must be kept away from the
light.
IX.— White glue 10 parts
Potassium bichromate 2 parts
Water 100 parts
The glue is dissolved in a portion of
the water by the aid of heat, the bichro-
mate in the remainder, and the liquids
mixed, the mixing being done in a feebly
lighted place, and the mixture is then
kept in the dark. It is applied in feeble
light, being reliquefied by gentle heat,
and the glass, the fractured pieces being
tightly clamped together, is then exposed
to a strong light for some time. By this
exposure the cement becomes insoluble.
This is waterproof cement for glass.
X. — Diamond Glass Cement. — Dis-
solve 100 parts of fish glue in 150 parts
of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with con-
stant stirring, 200 parts of powdered
rosin. This cement must be preserved
in absolutely tight bottles, as it solidifies
very quickly.
XI — To unite objects of crystal dis-
solve 8 parts of caoutchouc and 100 parts
of gum mastic in 600 parts of chloro-
form. Set aside, hermetically closed,
for 8 days; then apply with a brush,
cold.
XII. — To make a transparent cement
for glass, digest together for a week in
the cold 1 ounce of india rubber, 67
ounces of chloroform, and 40 ounces of
mastic.
XIII. — A mixture of traumaticin, a
solution of caoutchouc in chloroform,
and a concentrated solution of water
glass make a capital cement for unit-
ing articles of glass. Not only is the
joint very strong, but it is transparent.
Neither changes of temperature nor
moisture affect the cement.
XIV. — A transparent cement for por-
celain is prepared by dissolving 75 parts
of india rubber, cut into small pieces,
in a bottle containing 60 parts chloro-
form; to this add 15 parts green mastic.
Let the bottle stand in the cold until the
ingredients have become thoroughly dis-
solved.
XV. — Some preparations resist the ac-
tion of heat and moisture a short time,
but generally yield very quickly. The
following cement for glass has proven
most resistant to liquids and heat:
Silver litharge .... 1,000 parts
White lead 50 parts
Boiled linseed oil. . 3 parts
Copal varnish .... 1 part
Mix the lead and litharge thoroughly,
and the oil and copal in the same man-
ner, and preserve separately. When
needed for use, mix in the proportions
indicated (150 parts of the powder to 4
parts of the liquid) and knead well to-
gether. Apply to the edges of the glass,
bind the broken parts together, and let
stand for from 24 to 48 hours.
XVI. — To reunite plaster articles dis-
solve small pieces of celluloid in ether;
in a quarter of an hour decant, and use
the pasty deposit which remains for
smearing the edges of the articles. It
dries rapidly and is insoluble in water.
XVII.— To Mend Wedgwood Mortars.
— It is easy enough to mend mortars so
that they may be used for making emul-
sions and other light work which does
not tax their strength too much. But
a mended mortar will hardly be able to
stand the force required for powdering
hard substances. A good cement for
mending mortars is the following:
a. — Glass flour elutriated. 10 parts
Fluorspar, powdered
and elutriated 20 parts
Silicate of soda 60 parts
Both glass and fluorspar must be in
the finest possible condition, which is
best done by shaking each in fine pow-
der, with water allowing the coarser
particles to deposit, and then to pour off
the remainder, which holds the finest
particles in suspension. The mixture
must be made very rapidly by quick
stirring, and when thoroughly mixed
must be at once applied. This is said
to yield an excellent cement.
b. — Freshly burnt plaster
of Paris 5 parts
Freshly burnt lime .... 1 part
White of egg, sufficient.
Reduce the first two ingredients to a
very fine powder and mix them well;
moisten the two surfaces to be united with
a small quantity of white of egg to make
them adhesive; then mix the powder very
rapidly with the white of egg and apply
the mixture to the broken surfaces. If
they are large, two persons should do this,
each applying the cement to one portion.
The pieces are then firmly pressed to-
gether and left undisturbed for several
da.ys. The less cement is used the better
will the articles hold together.
c. — If there is no objection to dark-
colored cement, the very best that can
be used is probably marine glue. This
is made thus: Ten parts of caoutchouc or
india rubber are dissolved in 120 parts
of benzine or petroleum naphtha, with
ADHESIVES
the aid of a gentle heat. When the so-
lution is complete, which sometimes
laquires from 10 to 14 days, 20 parts of
asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and
the caoutchouc solution is poured in very
slowly in a fine stream and under con-
tinued heating, until the mass has be-
come homogeneous and nearly all the
solvent has been driven off. It is then
poured out and cast into greased tin
molds. It forms dark brown or black
cakes, which are very hard to break.
This cement requires considerable heat
to melt it; and to prevent it from being
burnt it is best to heat a capsule contain-
ing a piece of it first on a water bath until
the cake softens and begins to be liquid.
It is then carefully wiped dry and heated
over a naked flame, under constant stir-
ring, up to about 300° F. The edges of
the article to be mended should, if possi-
ble, also be heated to at least 212° F.,
so as to permit the cement to be ap-
plied at leisure and with care. The
thinner the cement is applied the better
it binds.
Meerschaum Cements. — I. — If the ma-
terial is genuine (natural) meerschaum
a lasting joint can be made between the
parts by proceeding as follows: Clean a
clove or two of garlic (the fresher the
better) by removing all the outside hull
of skin; throw into a little mortar and
mash to a paste. Rub this paste over
each surface to be united and join quick-
ly. Bring the parts as closely together
as possible and fasten in this position.
Have ready some boiling fresh milk;
place the article in it and continue the
boiling for 30 minutes. Remove and
let cool slowly. If properly done, this
makes a joint that will stand any ordi-
nary treatment, and is nearly invisible.
For composition, use a cement made of
quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream with
egg albumen.
II. — Mix very fine meerschaum shay-
ings with albumen or dissolve casein in
water glass, stir finely powdered magne-
sia into the mass, and use the cement
at once. This hardens quickly.
Asbestos Cement. — Ground asbestos
may be made into a cement which will
stand a high degree of heat by simply
mixing it with a solution of sodium sili-
cate. By subsequent treatment with a
solution of calcium chloride the mass
may be made insoluble, silicate of cal-
cium being formed.
A cement said to stand a high degree
of heat and to be suitable for cementing
glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended
to hold corrosive acids, is this one:
I. — Asbestos 2 parts
Barium sulphate 3 parts
Sodium silicate 2 parts
By mixing these ingredients a cement
strong enough to resist the strongest
nitric acid will be obtained. If hot acids
are dealt with, the following mixture will
be found to possess still more resistant
powers :
II. — Sodium silicate 2 parts
Fine sand 1 part
Asbestos powder 1 part
Both these cements take a few hours
to set. If the cement is wanted to set at
once, use potassium silicate instead of
sodium silicate. This mixture will be
instantly effective, and possesses the
same power of resistance as the other.
Parisian Cement. — Mix 1 part of
finely ground glass powder, obtained
by levigation, with 3 parts of finely pow-
dered zinc oxide rendered perfectly free
from carbonic acid by calcination. Be-
sides prepare a solution of 1 part, by
weight, of borax in a very small quantity
of hot water and mix this with 50 parts
of a highly concentrated zinc chloride
solution of 1.5 to 1.6 specific gravity.
As is well known the mixture of this
powder with the liquid into a soft uni-
form paste is accomplished only imme-
diately before use. The induration to
a stonelike mass takes place within a
few minutes, the admixture of borax
retarding the solidification somewhat.
The pure white color of the powder may
be tinted with ocher, manganese, etc.,
according to the shade desired.
Strong Cement. — Pour over well-
washed and cleaned casein 12| parts of
boiled linseed oil and the same amount
of castor oil. Boil. Stir actively and
add a small amount of a saturated aque-
ous solution of alum; remove from the
fire and set aside. After a while a milky
looking fluid will separate and rise. This
should be poured off. To the residue
add 120 parts of rock candy syrup and
6 parts of dextrin.
A Cheap and Excellent Cement. — A
cheap and excellent cement, insoluble
after drying in water, petroleum, oils,
carbon disulphide, etc., very hard when
dry and of very considerable tensile
strength, is composed of casein and
some tannic-acid compound, as, for in-
stance, calcium tannate, and is prepared
as follows:
First, a tannin solution is prepared
either by dissolving a tannin salt, or by
extraction from vegetable sources (as
barks from certain trees, etc.), to which
ADHESIVES
is added clear lime water (obtained by
filtering milk of lime, or by letting the
milk stand until the lime subsides) until
no further precipitation occurs, and red
litmus paper plunged in the fluid is
turned blue. The liquid is now sepa-
rated from its precipitate, either by de-
cantation or otherwise, and the precipi-
tate is dried. In operating with large
quantities of the substance, this is done
by passing a stream of atmospheric
air through the same. The lime tan-
nate obtained thus is then mixed with
casein in proportions running from 1 : 1
up to 1 : 10, and the mixture, thoroughly
dried, is milled into the consistency of the
finest powder. This powder has now
only to be mixed with water to be ready
for use, the consistency of the prepara-
tion depending upon the use to which
it is to be put.
Universal Cement. — Take gum arable,
100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 parts, by
weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight;
camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve
the gum arabic in a little water; also
dissolve the starch in a little water. Mix
and add the sugar and camphor. Boil
on the water bath until a paste is formed
which, on coating, will thicken.
Cement for Ivory. — Melt together
equal parts of gutta percha and ordinary
Eitch. The pieces to be united have to
e warmed.
Cement for Belts.— Mix 50 parts, by
weight, of fish glue with equal parts of
whey and acetic acid. Then add 50
parts, by weight, of garlic in paste form
and boil the whole on the water bath.
At the same time make a solution of
100 parts, by weight, of gelatin in the
same quantity of whey, and mix both
liquids. To the whole add, finally, 50
parts, by weight, of 90-per-cent alcohol
and, after filtration, a cement is ob-
tained which can be readily applied with
a brush and possesses extraordinary
binding qualities.
Cement for Chemical Apparatus. —
Melt together 20 parts of gutta percha,
10 parts of yellow wax, and 30 parts of
shellac.
Size Over Portland Cement. — The
best size to use on Portland cement
molding for wall paper would ordinarily
be glue and alum size put on thin and
warm, made in proportion of ^ pound
of glue and same weight of alum dis-
solved in separate pails, then poured to-
gether.
Aquarium Cements. —
I. — Litharge 3 ounces
Fine white sand ... 3 ounces
Plaster of Paris .... 3 ounces
Rosin, in fine pow-
der 1 ounce
Linseed oil, enough.
Drier, enough.
Mix the first three ingredients, add
sufficient linseed oil to make a homogene-
ous paste, and then add a small quantity
of drier. ^This should stand a few hours
before it is used. It is said that glass
joined to iron with this cement will
break before it will come loose.
II. — Litharge 1 ounce
Fine white sand. ... 1 ounce
Plaster of Paris. ... 1 ounce
Manganese borate. 20 grains
Rosin, in fine pow-
der 3£ pounds
Linseed varnish oil,
enough.
III. — Take equal parts of flowers of
sulphur, ammonium chloride, and iron
filings, and mix thoroughly with boiled
linseed oil. Finally, add enough white
lead to form a thin paste.
IV. — Powdered graphite. 6 parts
Slaked lime 3 parts
Barium sulphate. . . 8 parts
Linseed varnish oil. 7 parts
V. — Simply mix equal parts of white
and red lead with a little kettle-boiled
linseed oil.
Substitute for Cement on Grinder
Disks. — A good substitute in place of
glue or various kinds of cement for fast-
ening emery cloth to the disks of grind-
ers of the Gardner type is to heat or warm
the disk and apply a thin coating of
beeswax; then put the emery cloth in
place and allow to set and cool under
pressure.
Knpckenplombe. — If 1 part of thymol
be mixed with 2 parts of ipdoform we
obtain a substance that retains its fluid-
ity down to 72° C. (161.6° F.). If the
temperature be carried down to 60° C.
(140° F.) it suddenly becomes solid and
hard. If, in its liquid condition, this
substance be mixed intimately with an
equal quantity of calcined bone, it forms
a cement that can be molded or kneaded
into any shape, that, at the temperature
of the body (98° F.), becomes as hard as
stone, a fact that suggests many useful
purposes to which the mixture may be
put.
Cement for General Use. — Take gum
arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75
ADHESIVES
parts by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by
weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight.
Dissolve the gum arable in a little water.
On the other hand, dissolve the starch
also in some water. When this is done
add the sugar and the camphor and put
in a water bath. Boil until a paste is
formed, which must be rather thin, be-
cause it will thicken on cooling.
Strong Cement. — Pour over well-
washed and cleaned casein 12 A parts
of boiled linseed oil and the same amount
of castor oil, put on the fire and bring
to a boil; stir actively and add a small
amount of a saturated aqueous solution
of alum; remove from the fire and set
aside. After standing a while a milky-
looking fluid will separate at the bottom
and rise to the top. This should be
poured off and to the residue add 120
parts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of
dextrine.
Syndeticon. — 1. — Slake 100 parts of
burnt lime with 50 parts of water> pour
off the supernatant water; next, dissolve
60 parts of lump sugar in 160 parts of
water, add to the solution 15 parts of the
slaked lime, heat to 70° or 80° C. (158° to
176° F.), and set aside shaking fre-
quently. Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts
of genuine Cologne glue in 250 parts of
the clear solution.
II. — A solution of 10 parts gum ara-
bic and 30 parts of sugar in 100 parts of
soda water glass.
III. — A hot solution of 50 parts of
Cologne glue in 60 parts of a 20-per-cent
aqueous calcium-chloride solution.
IV. — A solution of 50 parts of Co-
logne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid.
V. — Soak isinglass (fish bladder) in
acetic acid of 70 per cent until it swells up,
then rub it up, adding a little water dur-
ing the process.
"Shio Liao." — Under this name the
Chinese manufacture an excellent ce-
ment which takes the place of glue, and
with which gypsum, marble, porcelain,
stone, and stoneware can be cemented.
It consists of the following parts (by
weight): Slaked powdered lime. 54
parts; powdered alum, 6 parts; and
iresh, well - strained blood, 40 parts.
These materials are stirred thoroughly
until an intimately bound mass of the
consistency of a more or less stiff salve
is obtained. In paste form this mass is
used as cement; in a liquid state it is
employed for painting all sorts of arti-
cles wnich are to be rendered waterproof
and durable. Cardboard covers, which
are coated with it two or three times, be
come as hard as wood. The Chinese paint
their houses with "shio liao" and glaze
their barrels with it, in which they trans-
port oil and other greasy substances.
LUTES.
Lutes always consist of a menstruum
and dissolved or suspended solids, and
they must not be attacked by the gases
and liquids coming in contact with them.
In some cases the constituents of the lute
react to form a more strongly adhering
mass.
The conditions of application are, in
brief:
(a) Heating the composition to make
it plastic until firmly fixed in place.
(6) Heating the surfaces.
(c) Applying the lute with water or a
volatile solvent, which is allowed to vola-
tilize.
(d) Moistening the surfaces with wa-
ter, oil, etc. (the menstruum of the lute
itself).
(e~) Applying the lute in workable con-
dition and the setting taking place by
chemical reactions.
(/) Setting by hydration.
((/) Setting by oxidation.
These principles will be found to cover
nearly all cases.
Joints should not be ill - fitting, de-
pending upon the lute to do what the
pipes or other parts of the apparatus
should do. In most cases one part of
the fitting should overlap the other, so
as to make a small amount of the lute
effective and to keep the parts of the ap-
paratus rigid, as a luted joint is not
supposed to be a particularly strong one,
but rather one quickly applied, effective
while in place and easily removed.
Very moderate amounts of the lute
should be used, as large amounts are
likely to develop cracks, be rubbed off,
etc.
A classification may be given as fol-
lows:
(1) Plaster of Paris.
(2) Hydraulic cement.
(3) Clay.
(4) Lime.
(5) Asphalt and pitch.
(6) Rosin.
(7) Rubber.
(8) Linseed oil.
(9) Casein and albumen.
(10) Silicates of soda and oxychlo-
ride cements.
(11) Flour and starch.
(12) Miscellaneous, including core
compounds.
I. Plaster of Paris is, of course, often
used alone as a paste., which quickly
ADHESIVES
soliames, for gas and wood distillation
retorts, etc., and similar places where
quickness of setting is requisite. It is
more often, however, used with some
fibrous material to give it greater strength.
Asbestos is the most commonly used
material of these, as it will stand a high
temperature. When that is not so im-
portant, straw, plush trimmings, hair,
etc., are used as binders, while broken
stone, glass, and various mineral sub-
stances are used as fillers, but they do
not add anything to the strength.
These lutes seem to be particularly suit-
able for oil vapors and hydrocarbon
Formulas:
(1) Plaster and water.
(2) Plaster (wet) and asbestos.
(3) Plaster (wet) and straw.
(4) Plaster (wet) and plush trim-
mings.
(5) Plaster (wet) and hair.
(6) Plaster (wet) and broken stone,
etc.
II. Hydraulic Cement. — Cement is
used either alone or with sand, asbestos,
etc. These lutes are suitable for nitric
acid. When used with substances such
as rosin or sulphur, cement is probably
employed because it is in such a fine
state of division and used as a filler and
not because of any powers of setting by
hydration.
Formulas:
(1) Cement — neat.
(2) Cement and asbestos.
(3) Cement and sand.
III. Clay. — This most frequently en-
ters into the composition of lutes as a
filler, but even then the very finely divid-
ed condition of certain grades renders
it valuable, as it gives body to a liquid,
such as linseed oil, which, unless stiff-
ened, would be pervious to a gas, the
clay in all cases being neutral. Thus,
for luting pipes carrying chlorine, a stiff
paste of clay and molasses has been sug-
gested by Theo. Koller in Die Surrogate,
but it soon gives way.
Formulas:
(1) Clay and linseed oil.
(2) Same, using fire clay.
(3) Clay and molasses.
(1) Is suitable for steam, etc.; (2) for
chlorine, and (3) for oil vapors.
IV. Lime is used in the old lute known
as putty, which consists of caustic lime
and linseed oil. Frequently the lime is
replaced by chalk and china clay, but
the lime should be, in part at least, caus-
tic, so as to form a certain amount of
lime soap. Lime is also used in silicate
and casein compositions, which are very
strong and useful, but will be described
elsewhere.
Formulas:
(1) Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass.
(2) Clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff
mass.
V. Asphalt and Pitch. —These sub-
stances are used in lutes somewhat inter-
changeably. As a rule, pitch makes the
stronger lutes. Tar is sometimes used,
but, because of the light oils and, fre-
quently, water contained, it is not so
good as either of the others.
Asphalt dissolved in benzol is very
useful for uniting glass for photographic,
microscopical, and other uses. Also
for coating wood, concrete, etc., where
the melted asphalt would be too thick
to cover well. Benzol is the cheapest
solvent that is satisfactory for this pur-
pose, as the only one that is cheaper
would be a petroleum naphtha, which
does not dissolve all the constituents of
the asphalt. For waterproofing wood,
brick, concrete, etc., melted asphalt
alone is much used, but when a little
paraffine is added, it improves its water-
proofing qualities, and in particular cases
boiled oil is also added to advantage.
Formulas:
1. Refined lake asphalt.
2. Asphalt 4 parts
Paraffine 1 part
3. Asphalt 10 parts
Paraffine '. 2 parts
Boiled oil 1 part
Any of these may be thinned with hot
benzol or toluol. Toluol is less volatile
than benzol and about as cheap, if not
cheaper, the straw-colored grades being
about 24 cents per gallon.
Examples of so-called "stone cement"
are:
4. Pitch 8 parts
Rosin 6 parts
Wax 1 part
Plaster \ to * part
5. Pitch 8 parts
Rosin 7 parts
Sulphur 2 parts
Stone powder 1 part
These compositions are used to unite
slate slabs and stoneware for domestic,
engineering, and chemical purposes. Va-
rious rosin and pitch mixtures are used
for these purposes, and the proportions
of these two ingredients are determined
by the consistency desired. Sulphur and
stone powder are added to prevent the
formation of cracks, sulphur acting chem-
ically and stone powder mechanically
ADHESIVES
Where the lute would come in contact
with acid or vapors of the same, lime-
stone should not be the powder used,
otherwise it is about the best. Wax is a
useful ingredient to keep the composi-
tion from getting brittle with age.
A class of lutes under this general
grouping that are much used are so-
called "marine glues" (q. v.). They
must be tough and elastic. When used
for calking on a vessel they must expand
and contract with the temperature and
not crack or come loose.
Formulas:
6. Pitch 3 parts
Shellac 2 parts
Pure crude rubber ... 1 part
7. Pitch 1 part
Shellac 1 part
Rubber substitute .... 1 part
These are used by melting over a
burner.
VI. Rosin, Shellac, and Wax. — A
strong cement, used as a stone cement,
is:
1. Rosin 8 parts
Wax 1 part
Turpentine 1 part
It has little or no body, and is used in
thin layers.
For nitric and hydrochloric acid
vapors:
2. Rosin 1 part
Sulphur 1 part
Fire clay 2 parts
Sulphur gives great hardness and
permanency to rosin lutes, but this com-
position is somewhat brittle.
Good waterproof lutes of this class
are:
3. Rosin 1 part
Wax 1 part
Powdered stone 2 parts
4. Shellac 5 parts
Wax.... 1 part
Turpentine 1 part
Chalk, etc 8 to 10 parts
For a soft air-tight paste for ground-
glass surfaces:
5. Wax 1 part
Vaseline 1 part
6. A strong cement, without body,
for metals (other than copper or alloys
of same), porcelain, and glass is made by
letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac
stand with 10 parts of ammonia water
until solution is effected.
VII. Rubber. — Because of its toughness,
elasticity, and resistance to alterative
influences, rubber is a very useful con-
stituent in lutes, but its price makes its
use very limited.
Leather Cement.
1. Asphalt 1 part
Rosin 1 part
Gutta percha 4 parts
Carbon disulphide. . . 20 parts
To stand acid vapors:
2. Rubber 1 part
Linseed oil 3 parts
Fire clay 3 parts
3. Plain Rubber Cement. — Cut the
crude rubber in small pieces and then
add the solvent. Carbon disulphide is
the best, benzol good and much cheaper,
but gasoline is probably most extensively
used because of its cheapness.
4. To make corks and wood im-
pervious to steam and water, soak them
in a rubber solution as above; if it is
desired to protect them from oil vapors,
use glue composition. (See Section IX.)
VIII. Linseed Oil.— This is one of the
most generally useful substances we have
for luting purposes, if absorbed by a por-
ous substance that is inert.
Formulas: 1. China clay of general
utility for aqueous vapors.
Linseed oil of general utility for aque-
ous vapors.
2. Lime forming the well - known
putty.
Linseed oil forming the well-known
putty.
3. Red or white lead and linseed oil.
These mixtures become very strong
when set and are best diluted with pow-
dered glass, clay, or graphite. There
are almost an endless number of lutes
using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A
very good one, not getting as hard as
those containing lead, is:
4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil.
IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue. —
These, if properly made, become very
tough and tenacious; they stand moder-
ate heat and oil vapors, but not acid
vapors.
1. Finely powdered case-
in 12 parts
Slaked lime (fresh). . . 50 parts
Fine sand. . ; 50 parts
Water to thick mush.
A very strong cement which stands
moderate heat is the following :
2. Casein in very fine
powder 1 part
Rubbed up with sili-
cate of soda 3 parts
A strong lute for general purposes.
ADHESIVES
which must be used promptly when
made:
3. White of egg made into a paste
with slaked lime.
A composition for soaking corks,
wood, packing, etc., to render them im-
pervious to oil vapors, is:
Gelatine or good glue 2 parts
Glycerine A to 1 part
Water 6 parts
Oil of wintergreen,
etc., to keep from
spoiling.
X. Silicate of Oxy chloride Cements. —
For oil vapors, standing the highest heat:
1. A stiff paste of silicate of soda and
asbestos.
Gaskets for superheated steam, re-
torts, furnaces, etc.:
2. Silicate of soda and powdered glass;
dry the mixture and heat.
Not so strong, however, as the follow-
ing:
3. Silicate of soda 50 parts
Asbestos 15 parts
Slaked lime 10 parts
Metal Cement:
4. Silicate of soda 1 part
Oxides of metal, such
as zinc oxide; lith-
arge, iron oxide,
singly or mixed 1 part
Very hard and extra strong composi-
tions:
5. Zinc oxide 2 parts
Zinc chloride 1 part
Water to make a paste.
6. Magnesium oxide ... 2 parts
Magnesium chloride. 1 part
Water to make a paste.
XI. Flour and Starch Compositions. —
1. The well-known flaxseed poultice
sets very tough, but does not stand water
or condensed steam.
2. Flour and molasses, made by mak-
ing a stiff composition of the two.
This is an excellent lute to have at hand
at all times for emergency use, etc.
3. Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc-
chloride solution forms a more imper-
vious lute, and is more permanent as
a cement. This is good for most pur-
poses, at ordinary temperature, where it
would not be in contact with nitric-acid
vapors or condensing steam.
4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand
makes a good composition, mainly used
as core compound.
XII. Miscellaneous. —
1. Litharge.
Glycerine.
Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and
becomes very hard and strong, and is very
useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in
iron or brass.
For a high heat:
2. Alumina 1 part
Sand 4 parts
Slaked lime 1 part
Borax £ part
Water sufficient.
A class of mixtures that can be classi-
fied only according to their intended use
are core compounds.
I. — Dextrine, about 1 part
Sand, about 10 parts
With enough water to form a paste.
II. — Powdered anthracite coal, with
molasses to form a stiff paste.
III. — Rosin, partly saponi-
fied by soda lye .... 1 part
Flour. 2 parts
Sand (with sufficient
water) 4 parts
(These proportions are approximate
and the amount of sand can be increased
for some purposes.)
IV. — Glue, powdered 1 part
Flour 4 parts
Sand (with sufficient
water) 6 parts
For some purposes the following mix-
ture is used. It does not seem to be a
gasket or a core compound:
V.— Oats (or wheat) ground 25 parts
Glue, powdered 6 parts
Sal ammoniac 1 part
Paper read by Samuel S. Sadtler before
the Franklin Institute.
PASTES:
Dextrine Pastes. —
I. — Borax, powdered.. . . 60 parts
Dextrine, light yellow. 480 parts
Glucose 50 parts
Water 420 parts
By the aid of heat, dissolve the borax
in the water and add the dextrine and
glucose. Continue the heat, but do not
let the mixture boil, and stir constantly
until a homogeneous solution is obtained,
from time to time renewing the water
lost by evaporation with hot water.
Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000
parts) by the addition of hot water, then
strain through flannel. Prepared in this
manner the paste remains bright and
clear for a long time. It has extraor-
dinary adhesive properties and dries very
rapidly. If care is not taken to keep the
cooking temperature below the boiling
point of water, the paste is apt to become
brown and to be very brittle on drying.
ADHESIVES
II. — Dissolve in hot water a sufficient
quantity of dextrine to bring it to the
consistency of honey. This forms a
strong adhesive paste that will keep a
long time unchanged, if the water is not
allowed to evaporate. Sheets of paper
may be prepared for extempore labels
by coating one side with the paste and
allowing it to dry; by slightly wetting
the gummed side, the label will adhere
to glass. This paste is very useful in the
office or laboratory.
III. — Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine
450 parts of soft water and stir the mix-
ture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine
has absorbed the water, put the mixture
over the fire, or, preferably, on a water
bath, and heat, with lively stirring for
5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk-
like liquid, on the surface of which lit-
tle bubbles begin to form and the liquid
is apparently beginning to boil. Do
not allow it to come to a boil. Re-
move from the fire and set in a bucket
of cold water to cool off. When cold
add to every 1,000 parts of the solution
51 parts glycerine and as much salicylic
acid as will stand on the tip of a knife
blade. If the solution is too thick, thin
it with water that has been boiled and
cooled off again. Dp not add any more
glycerine or the solution will never set.
IV.— Soften 175 parts of thick dex-
trine with cold water and 250 parts of
boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes
and then add 30 parts of dilute acetic
acid, 30 parts glycerine, and a drop or
two of clove oil.
V. — Powder coarsely 400 parts dex-
trine and dissolve in 600 parts of water.
Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glu-
cose and heat to 90° C. (195° F.).
VI. — Stir 400 parts of dextrine with
water and thin the mass with 200 parts
more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10
parts aluminum sulphate. Heat the
whole to 90° C. (195° F.) in the water
bath until the whole mass becomes clear
and liquid.
VII. — Warm 2 parts of dextrine, 5
parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid, 1
part of alcohol together, with occasional
stirring until a complete solution is at-
tained.
VIII. — Dissolve by the aid of heat 100
parts ot builders' glue in 200 parts of
water add 2 parts of bleached shellac
dissolved previously in 50 parts of alcohol.
Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dex-
trine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two
solutions by stirring the second slowly
into the first. Strain the mixture through
a cloth into a shallow dish and let it
harden. When needed cut off a piece of
sufficient size and warm until it becomes
liquid and if necessary or advisable thin
with water.
IX. — Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with
sufficient water to make a thick broth.
Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25
parts of sodium water glass.
X. — Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in
water and add 1 part of alum.
Fastening Cork to Metal. — In fasten-
ing cork to iron and brass, even when
these are lacquered, a good sealing wax
containing shellac will be found to serve
the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with
rosin is not suitable. The cork surface
is painted with the melted sealing wax.
The surface of the metal is heated with
a spirit flame entirely free from soot,
until the sealing wax melts when pressed
upon the metallic surface. The wax is
held in the flame until it burns, and it is
then applied to the hot surface of the
metal. The cork surface painted with
sealing wax is now held in the flame, and
as soon as the wax begins to melt the
cork is pressed firmly on the metallic sur-
face bearing the wax.
To Paste Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or
Leather. — To attach celluloid to wood,
tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of
shellac, 1 part of spirit of camphor, 3 to
4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°)
is well adapted, in which 1 part of cam-
phor is dissolved without heating in 7
parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific
gravity, adding 2 parts of water.
To Paste Paper Signs on Metal or
Cloth. — A piece of gutta percha of the
same size as the label is laid under the
latter and the whole is heated. If the
heating cannot be accomplished by means
of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed
down under a protective cloth or paper
in the same manner as woolen goods are
pressed. This method is also very use-
ful for attaching paper labels to minerals.
Paste for Fastening Leather, Oilcloth,
or Similar Stuff to Table or Desk Tops,
etc. — Use the same paste for leather as
for oilcloth or other goods, but moisten
the leather before applying the paste.
Prepare the paste as follows: Mix 2J
pounds of good wheat flour with 2
tablespoonfuls of pulverized gum ara-
bic or powdered rosin and 2 table-
spoonfuls of pulverized alum in a clean
dish with water enough to make a uni-
formly thick batter; set it over a slow
fire and stir continuously until the paste
is uniform and free from lumps. When
the mass has become so stout that the
wooden spoon or stick will stand in it
ADHESIVES
upright, it is taken from the fire and
placed in another dish and covered so
that no skin will form on top. When
cold, the table or desk top, etc., is
covered with a thin coat of the paste, the
cloth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed
from the center toward the edges with
a rolling pin. The trimming of edges is
accomplished when the paste has dried.
To smooth out the leather after pasting, a
woolen cloth is of the best service.
To Paste Paper on Smooth Iron. —
Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by
weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight,
of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by
weight, of acetic acid, 50 parts alco-
hol, and 50 parts, by weight, of pulver-
ized alum. The spot upon which it is
desired to attach the paper must first
be rubbed with a bit of fine emery paper.
Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal.—
Starch 20 parts
Sugar 10 parts
Zinc chloride 1 part
Water 100 parts
Mix the ingredients and stir .until a
perfectly smooth liquid results entirely
free from lumps, then warm gradually
until the liquid thickens.
To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal.—
Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of dextrine
in 600 parts, by weight, of water; add
to this 10 parts, by weight, of glucose,
and heat almost to boiling.
Albumen Paste.— Fresh egg albumen
is recommended as a paste for affixing
labels on bottles. It is said that labels
put on with this substance, and well
dried at the time, will not loosen even
when bottles are put into water and left
there for some time. Albumen, dry, is
almost proof against mold or ferments.
As to cost, it is but little if any higher
than gum arabic, the white of one egg
being sufficient to attach at least 100
medium-sized labels.
Paste for Parchment Paper.— The best
agent is made by dissolving casein in a
saturated aqueous solution of borax.
Medical Paste. — As an adhesive agent
for medicinal purposes Professor Reihl,
of Leipsic, recommends the viscous sub-
stance contained in the white mistletoe.
It is largely present in the berries and
the bark of the plant; it is called viscin,
and can be produced at one-tenth the
price of caoutchouc. Solutions in ben-
zine mav be used like those of caout-
chouc without causing any irritation if
applied mixed with medicinal remedies
to the skin.
Paste That Will Not Mold.— Mix good
white flour with cold water into a thick
paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps;
then add boiling water, stirring all the
time until thoroughly cooked. To 6
quarts of this add \ pound light brown
sugar and \ ounce corrosive sublimate,
dissolved in a little hot water. When the
paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender.
This paste will keep for a long time.
Pasting Wood and Cardboard on
Metal. — In a little water dissolve 50 parts
of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In
another receptacle dissolve 75 parts of
gum arabic in 2,000 parts of water.
Into this gum-arabic solution pour 500
Krts of flour, stirring constantly, and
at gradually to the boiling point.
Mingle the solution first prepared with
the second solution. It should be kept
in mind that, owing to the lead acetate,
this preparation is poisonous.
Agar Agar Paste.— The agar agar is
broken up small, wetted with water, and
exposed in an earthenware vessel to the ac-
tion of ozone pumped under pressure into
the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus.
About an hour of this bleaches the agar
agar and makes it freely soluble in boil-
ing water, when solutions far more con-
centrated than has hitherto been possible
can be prepared. On cooling, the solu-
tions assume a milky appearance, but
form no lumps and are readily relique-
fied by heating. If the solution is com-
pletely evaporated, as of course happens
when the adhesive is allowed to dry after
use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which
is insoluble in cold water. Among the
uses to which the preparation can be
applied are the dressing of textile fabrics
and paper sizing, and the production of
photographic papers, as well as the or-
dinary uses of an adhesive.
Strongly Adhesive Paste. — Four parts
glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts
cold water, and moderately heated till
the solution becomes perfectly clear,
when 65 parts boiling water are added,
while stirring. In another vessel 30
parts boiled starch are previously stirred
together with 20 parts cold water, so
that a thin, milky liquid without lumps
results. The boiling glue solution is
poured into this while stirring constantly,
and the whole is kept boiling another 10
minutes.
Paste for Tissue Paper.—
(a) Pulverized gum ara-
bic 2 ounces
White sugar 4 drachms
Boiling water 3 fluidounces
ADHESIVES
(6) Common laundry
starch 1^ ounces
Cold water 3 fluidounces
Make into a batter and pour into
Boiling water 32 fluidounces
Mix (a) with (6), and keep in a wide-
mouthed bottle.
Waterproof and Acidproof Pastes. —
I. — Chromic acid 2£ parts
Stronger ammonia. . . 15 parts
Sulphuric acid % part
Cuprammonium so-
lution 30 parts
Fine white paper .... 4 parts
II. — Isinglass, a sufficient
quantity
Acetic acid 1 part
Water 7 parts
Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mix-
ture of acetic acid and water to make a
thin mucilage.
One of the solutions is applied to the
surface of one sheet of paper and the other
to the other sheet, and they are then
pressed together.
III. — A fair knotting varnish free
from surplus oil is by far the best adhe-
sive for fixing labels, especially on metal
surfaces. It dries instantly, insuring
a speedy job and immediate packing, if
needful, without fear of derangement.
It has great tenacity, and is not only
absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actu-
ally repellent of moisture, to which all
water pastes are subject. It costs more,
but the additional expense is often infini-
tesimal compared with the pleasure of a
satisfactory result.
Balkan Paste.—
Pale glue 4 ounces
White loaf sugar. ... 2 ounces
Powdered starch. ... 1 ounce
White dextrine \ pound
Pure glycerine 3 ounces
Carbolic acid \ ounce
Boiling water 32 ounces
Cut up the glue and steep it in i pint
boiling water; when softened melt in a
saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dex-
trine, and lastly the glycerine, in which
carbolic acid has been mixed; add re-
mainder of water, and boil until it thick-
ens. Pour into jars or bottles.
Permanent Paste. —
I. — Wheat flour 1 pound
Water, cold 1 quart
Nitric acid 4 fluidrachms
Boric acid 40 grains
Oil of cloves 20 minims
Mix the flour, boric acid, and water*
then strain the mixture; add fbe nitric
acid, apply heat with constant stirring
until the mixture thickens; when nearly
cold add the oil of cloves. This paste
will have a pleasant smell, will not attract
flies, and can be thinned by the addition
of cold water as needed.
II. — Dissolve 4 ounces alum in 4
quarts hot water. When cool add as
much flour as will make it of the usual
consistency; then stir into it i ounce
powdered rosin; next add a little water
in which a dozen cloves have been
steeped; then boil it until thick as mush,
stirring from the bottom all the time.
Thin with warm water for use.
Preservatives for Paste. — Various an-
tiseptics are employed for the preserva-
tion of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Boric
and salicylic acids, oil of cloves, oil of
sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde
are among those which have given best
service. A durable starch paste is pro-
duced by adding some borax to the
water used in making it. A paste from
10 parts (weight) starch to 100 parts
(weight) water with 1 per cent borax
added will keep many weeks, while with-
out this addition it will sour after six
days. In the case of a gluing material
prepared from starch paste and joiners'
glue, borax has also demonstrated its pre-
serving qualities. The solution is made
by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into
a paste with water and adding 10 parts
(weight) glue soaked in water to the hot
solution; the addition of -,-V part (weight)
of borax to the solution will cause it to
keep for weeks. It is equal to the best
glue, but should be warmed and stirred
before use.
Board -Sizing. — A cheap sizing for
rough, weather-beaten boards may be
made by dissolving shellac in sal soda
and adding some heavy-bodied pigment.
This size will stick to grease spots. Lin-
seed oil may be added if desired. Lime-
water and linseed oil make a good heavy
sizing, but hard to spread. They are
usually used half and half, though these
proportions may be varied somewhat.
Rice Paste. — Mix the rice flour with
cold water, and boil it over a gentle fire
until it thickens. This paste is quite
white and becomes transparent on dry-
ing. It is very adherent and of great use
for many purposes.
Casein Paste. — A solution of tannin,
prepared from a bark or from commer-
cial tannin, is precipitated with lime-
water, the lime being added until the
j solution just turns red litmus paper blue.
• The supernatant liquid is then decanted,
ADHESIVES
39
and the precipitate is dried without arti-
ficial heat. The resulting calcium tan-
nate is then mixed, according to the pur-
pose for which the adhesive is intended,
with from 1 to 10 times its weight of dry
casein by grinding in a mill. The ad-
hesive compound is soluble in water,
petroleum, oils, and carbon bisulphide.
It is very strong, and is applied m the
form of a paste with water.
PASTES FOR PAPERHANGERS.
I. — Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat
flour, mix thoroughly with cold water to
about the consistency of dough, or a little
thinner, being careful to remove all
lumps; stir in a tablespoonful of pow-
dered alum to a quart of flour, then pour
in boiling water, stirring rapidly until the
flour is thoroughly cooked. Let this cool
before using, and thin with cold water.
II. — Venetian Paste. —
(a) 4 ounces white or fish glue
8 fluidounces cold water
(6) 2 fluidounces Venice turpentine
(c) 1 pound rye flour
16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water
(d~) 64 fluidounces (| gallon) boiling
water
Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold
water for 4 hours; dissolve on a water
bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the
Venice turpentine. Make up (c) into a
batter free from lumps and pour into (d).
Stir briskly, and finally add the glue so-
lution. This makes a very strong paste,
and it will adhere to a painted surface,
owing to the Venice turpentine in its
composition.
III.— Strong Adhesive Paste. —
(a) 4 pounds rye flour
| gallon cold water
(6) 1| gallons boiling water
(c) 2 ounces pulverized rosin
Make (a) into a batter free from lumps;
then pour into (6) . Boil if necessary, and
while hot stir in the pulverized rosin a
little at a time. This paste is exceed-
ingly strong, and will stick heavy wall
paper or thin leather. If the paste be
too thick, thin with a little hot water;
never thin paste with cold water.
IV. —Flour Paste. —
(a) 2 pounds wheat flour
32 fluidounces (1 quart) cold water
(6) 1 ounce alum
4 fluidounces hot water
(c) 96 fluidounces ($ gallon) boiling
water
Work the wheat flour into a batter free
from lumps with the cold water. Dis-
solve the alum as designated in (6).
Now stir in (a) and (c) and, if necessary,
continue boiling until the paste thickens
into a semitransparent mucilage, after
which stir in solution (6). The above
makes a very fine paste for wall paper.
V.— Elastic or Pliable Paste. —
(a) 4 ounces common starch
2 ounces white dextrine
10 fluidounces cold water
(6) 1 ounce borax
3 fluidounces glycerine
64 fluidounces (^ gallon) boiling
water
Beat to a batter the ingredients of (a).
Dissolve the borax in the boiling water;
then add the glycerine, after which pour
(a) into solution (6) . Stir until it becomes
translucent. This paste will not crack,
and, being very pliable, is used for paper,
cloth, leather, and other material where
flexibility is required.
VI. — A paste with which wall paper
can be attached to wood or masonry,
adhering to it firmly in spite of damp-
ness, is prepared, as usual, of rye flour, to
which, however, are added, after the boil-
ing, 8J parts, by weight, of good linseed-
oil varnish and 8J parts, by weight, of
turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight.
VII.— Paste for Wall Paper.— Soak 18
pounds of bolus (bole) in water, after it
has been beaten into small fragments,
and pour off the supernatant water.
Boil 10 ounces of glue into glue water,
mix it well with the softened bolus and
2 pounds plaster of Paris and strain
through a sieve by means of a brush.
Thin the mass with water to the consist-
ency of a thin paste. The paste is now
ready for use. It is not only much
cheaper than other varieties, but has the
advantage over them of adhering better
to whitewashed walls, and especially
such as have been repeatedly coated over
the old coatings which were not thor-
oughly removed. For hanging fine wall
paper this paste is less commendable,
as it forms a white color,, with which
the paper might easily become soiled if
great care is not exercised in applying
it. If the fine wall paper is mounted on
ground paper, however, it can be recom-
mended for pasting the ground paper on
'the wall.
LABEL PASTES :
Pastes to Affix Labels to Tin.— Labels
separate from tin because the paste be-
comes too dry. Some moisture is pre-
sumably always present; but more is
required to cause continued adhesion in the
case of tin than where the container is of
ADHESIVES
glass. Paste may be kept moist by the
addition of calcium chloride, which is
strongly hygroscopic, or of glycerine.
The following formulas for pastes of
the type indicated were proposed by Leo
Eliel:
I. — Tragacanth 1 ounce
Acacia 4 ounces
Thymol 14 grains
Glycerine 4 ounces
Water, sufficient to
make 2 pints
Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water,
strain, and add the glycerine, in which
the thymol is suspended; shake well and
add sufficient water to make 2 pints.
This separates on standing, but a single
shake mixes it sufficiently for use.
II. — Rye flour 8 ounces
Powdered acacia. ... 1 ounce
Glycerine 2 ounces
Oil of cloves 40 drops
Rub the rye flour and acacia to a
smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water;
strain through cheese cloth, and pour
into 1 pint of boiling water, and continue
the heat until as thick as desired. When
nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of
cloves.
III.— Rye flour 5 parts
Venice turpentine. .. 1 part
Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity
Rub up the flour with the turpentine
and then add sufficient freshly prepared
glue (glue or gelatine dissolved in water)
to make a stiff paste. This paste dries
slowly.
IV. — Dextrine 2 parts
Acetic acid 1 part
Water 5 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent . 1 part
Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid
in water by heating together in the water
bath, and to the solution add the alcohol.
V. — Dextrine 3 pounds
Borax 2 ounces
Glucose 5 drachms
Water 3 pints 2 ounces
Dissolve the borax in the water by
warming, then add the dextrine and glu-
cose, and continue to heat gently until
dissolved.
Another variety is made by dissolving'
a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater, but it
keeps badly.
VI. — Add tartaric acid to thick flour
paste. The paste is to be boiled until
quite thick, and the acid, previously dis-
solved in a little water, is added, the pro-
portion being about 2 ounces to the pint
of paste.
VII. — Gum arabic, 50 parts; glycer-
ine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts; liq. Stibii
chlorat., 2 parts.
VIII. — Boil rye flour and strong glue
water into a mass to which are added, for
1,000 parts, good linseed-oil varnish 30
parts and oil of turpentine 30 parts.
This mixture furnishes a gluing agent
which, it is claimed, even renders the
labels proof against being loosened by
moisture.
IX.— Pour 140 parts of distilled cold
water over 100 parts of gum arabic in a
wide-necked bottle and dissolve by fre-
quent shaking. To the solution, which
is ready after standing for about 3 days,
add 10 parts of glycerine; later, 20 parts of
diluted acetic acid, and finally 6 parts of
aluminum sulphate, then straining it
through a fine-hair sieve.
X. — Good glue is said to be obtained
by dissolving 1 part of powdered sugar
in 4 parts of soda water glass.
XI. — A glue for bottle labels is pre-
pared by dissolving borax in water;
soak glue in this solution and dissolve
the glue by boiling. Carefully drop as
much acetic acid into the solution as
will allow it to remain thin on cooling.
Labels affixed with this agent adhere
firmly and do not become moldy in damp
cellars.
XII. — Dissolve some isinglass in acetic
acid and brush the labels over with it.
There will be no cause to complain
of their coming off, nor of striking
through the paper. Take a wide-
mouthed bottle, fill about two-thirds with
commercial acetic acid, and put in as much
isinglass as the liquid will hold, and set
aside in a warm place until completely
dissolved. When cold it should form a
jelly. To use it place the bottle in hot
water. The cork should be well-fit-
ting and smeared with vaseline or melted
paraffine.
How to Paste Labels on Tin. — Brush
over the entire back of the label with a
flour paste, fold the label loosely by
sticking both ends together without
creasing the center, and throw to one
side until this process has been gone
through with the whole lot. Then unfold
each label and place it on the can in the
regular manner. The paste ought not
to be thicker than maple syrup. When
of this consistency it soaks through the
label and makes it pliable and in a con-
dition to be easily rubbed into position.
If the paste is too thick it dries quickly,
and does not soak through the label suf-
ficiently. After the labels have been
placed upon the cans the latter must be
ADHESIVES
kept apart until dry. In putting the
paste upon the labels in the first place,
follow the method of placing the dry
labels over one another, back sides up,
with the edge of each just protruding over
the edge of the one beneath it, so that
the fingers may easily grasp the label
after the pasting has been done.
Druggists' Label Paste.— This paste,
when carefully made, is an admirable one
for label use, and a very little will go a
long way:
Wheat flour 4 ounces
Nitric acid 1 drachm
Boric acid 10 grains
Oil of cloves 5 drops
Carbolic acid | drachm
Stir flour and water together, mixing
thoroughly, and add the other ingre-
dients. After the stuff is well mixed,
heat it, watching very carefully and re-
moving the instant it stiffens.
To Attach Glass Labels to Bottles.—
Melt together 1 part of rosin and 2 parts
of yellow wax, and use while warm.
Photographic Mountants (see also
Photography). — Owing to the nature of
the different papers used for printing
photographs, it is a matter of extreme
importance to use a mountant that shall
not set up decomposition in the coating
of the print. For example, a mountant
that exhibits acidity or alkalinity is in-
jurious with most varieties of paper; and
in photography the following formulas
for pastes, mucilages, etc., have there-
fore been selected with regard to their
absolute immunity from setting up de-
composition in the print or changing its
tone in any way. One of the usual
mountants is rice starch or else rice water.
The latter is boiled to a thick jelly,
strained, and the strained mass used
as an agglutinant for attaching photo-
graphic prints to the mounts. There is
nothing of an injurious nature whatever
in this mountant, neither is there in a
mucilage made with gum dragon.
This gum (also called gum traga-
canth) is usually in the form of curls
(i.e., leaf gum), which take a long time
to properly dissolve in water — several
weeks, in fact — but during the past few
years there has been put on the market a
powdered gum dragon which does not
occupy so many days in dissolving. To
make a mucilage rom gum dragon a
very large volume of water is required.
For example, 1 ounce of the gum, either
leaf or powder, will swell up and con-
vert 1 gallon of water into a thickish
mucilage in the course of 2 or 3 weeks.
Only cold water must be used, and be-
fore using the mucilage, all whitish
lumps (which are particles of undissolved
gum) should be picked out or else the
mucilage strained. The time of solution
can be considerably shortened (to a few
hours) by acidifying the water in which
the gum is placed with a little sulphuric
or oxalic acid; but as the resultant muci-
lage would contain traces of their pres-
ence, such acids are not permissible
when the gum-dragon mucilage is to be
used for mounting photographs.
Glycerine and gum arabic make a very
good adhesive of a fluid nature suited
to mounting photographs; and although
glycerine is hygroscopic by itself, such
tendency to absorb moisture is checked
by the reverse nature of the gum arabic;
consequently an ideal fluid mucilage is
produced. The proportions of the sev-
eral ingredients are these:
Gum arabic, genuine
(gum acacia, not
Bassora gum) 4 ounces
Boiling water 12 ounces
Glycerine, pure 1 ounce
First dissolve the gum in the water,
and then stir in the glycerine, and allow
al] debris from the gum to deposit before
using. The following adhesive com-
pound is also one that is free from chem-
ical reactions, and is suited for photo-
graphic purposes:
Water 2 pints
Gum dragon, pow-
dered 1 ounce
Gum arabic, genuine 4 ounces
Glycerine 4 ounces
Mix the gum arabic with half the wa-
ter, and in the remainder of the water
dissolve the gum dragon. When both
solids are dissolved, mix them together,
and then stir in the glycerine.
The following paste will be found a
useful mountant:
Gum arabic, genuine 1 ounce
Rice starch 1 ounce
White sugar 4 ounces
Water, q. s.
Dissolve the gum in just sufficient
water to completely dissolve it, then add
the sugar, and when that has completely
dissolved stir in the starch paste, and
then boil the mixture until the starch is
properly cooked.
A very strong, stiff paste for fastening
cardboard mounts to frames, wood, and
other materials is prepared by making
a bowl of starch paste in the usual way,
and then adding 1 ounce of Venice tur-
pentine per pound of paste, and boil-
ADHESIVES
ing and stirring the mixture until the
thick turpentine has become well incor-
porated. Venice turpentine stirred into
flour paste and boiled will also be found
a very adhesive cement for fastening
cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and
skiver leather to wood or metal; but
owing to the resinous nature of the Venice
turpentine, such pastes are not suitable
for mounting photographic prints. The
following half-dozen compounds are
suitable mountants to use with silver
prints:
Alcohol, absolute. ... 10 ounces
Gelatine, good 1 ounce
Glycerine \ to 1 ounce
Soak the gelatine in water for an hour
or two until it is completely softened;
take the gelatine out of the water, and
allow it to drain, and put it into a
bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the
glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use
only \ ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use
1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the
gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel
of hot water, and shake up very well.
For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol
prevents the prints from stretching or
cockling, as they are apt to, under the
influence of the gelatine.
In the following compound, however,
only sufficient alcohol is used to serve as
an antiseptic, and prevent the aggluti-
nant from decomposing : Dissolve 4
ounces of photographic gelatine in 16
ounces of water (first soaking the gela-
tine therein for an hour or two until it is
completely softened), then remove the
gelatine from the water, allow it to drain,
and put it into the bottle, and pour the
alcohol over it, and put in the glycerine
(if the gelatine is soft, use only \ ounce;
if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the
glycerine), then melt the gelatine by
standing the bottle in a vessel of hot
water, and shake up well and mix thor-
oughly. For use, remelt by heat. The
alcohol prevents the print from stretch-
ing or cockling up under the influence of
the gelatine.
The following paste agglutinant is one
that is very permanent and useful for all
purposes required in a photographic
studio: Take 5 pints of water, 10 ounces
of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a
\ pint (10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and
proceed to combine them as follows:
Make arrowroot into a thick cream with
a little of the water, and in the remainder
of the water soak the gelatine for a few
hours, after which melt the gelatine in
the water by heating it, add the arrow-
root paste, and bring the mixture to the
boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5 minutes,
then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol,
adding a few drops of oil of cloves.
Perhaps one or the most useful com-
pounds for photographic purposes is that
prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of
hard gelatine in 15 ounces of water for a
few hours, then melt the gelatine by
heating it in a glue pot until the solution
is quite clear and free from lumps, stir
in 65 fluidounces of cold water so that
it is free from lumps, and pour in the
boiling-hot solution of gelatine and con-
tinue stirring, and if the starch is not
completely cooked, boil up the mixture
for a few minutes until it "blows," being
careful to keep it well stirred so as not
to burn; when cold add a few drops of
carbolic acid or some essential oil as an
antiseptic to prevent the compound from
decomposing or becoming sour.
A useful photographic mucilage, which
is very liquid, is obtained by mixing equal
bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon
mucilages of the same consistence. The
mixture of these mucilages will be con-
siderably thinner than either of them
when alone.
As an agglutinant for general use in the
studio, the following is recommended:
Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5
ounces of water, and for every 250 parts
of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solu-
tion of sulphate of aluminum, prepared
by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate in
20 parts of water (common alum should
not be used, only the pure aluminum
sulphate, because common alum is a
mixture of sulphates, and usually con-
taminated with iron salts). The addi-
tion of the sulphate solution to the
gum mucilage renders the latter less
hygroscopic, and practically waterproof,
besides being very adhesive to any
materials, particularly those exhibiting a
smooth surface.
MUCILAGES :
For Affixing Labels to Glass and Other
Objects. — I. — The mucilage is made by
simply pouring over the gum enough
water to a little more than cover it, and
then, as the gum swells, adding more water
from time to time in small portions, until
the mucilage is brought to such con-
sistency that it may be easily spread with
the brush. The mucilage keeps fairly
well without the addition of any anti-
septic.
II. — Tragacanth 1 ounce
Acacia 4 ounces
Thymol 14 grains
Glycerine 4 ounces
Water, sufficient to
make 2 pints
ADHESIVES
Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water,
strain and add the glycerine, in which
the thymol is suspended; shake well and
add sufficient water to make 2 pints.
This separates on standing, but a single
shake mixes it sufficiently for use.
III. — Rye flour 8 ounces
Powdered acacia. 1 ounce
Glycerine 2 ounces
Oil of cloves 40 drops
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a
smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water;
strain through cheese cloth, and pour
into 1 pint of boiling water and continue
the heat until as thick as desired. When
nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of
cloves.
IV. — One part, by weight, of traga-
canth, when mixed with 95-per-cent alco-
hol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in
which a portion of the tragacanth is dis-
solved and the remainder suspended;
this remains permanently fluid, never
deteriorates, and can be used in place of
the present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to
each ounce of mixture is sufficient to
suspend any of the insoluble substances
usually given in mixtures.
V. — To 250 parts of gum-arabic muci-
lage add 20 parts of water and 2 parts of
sulphate of alumina and heat until dis-
solved.
VI. — Dissolve \ pound gum traga-
canth, powdered, J pound gum arabic,
powdered, cold water to the desired con-
sistency, and add 40 drops carbolic acid.
Mucilage of Acacia. — Put the gum,
which should be of the best kind, in a flask
the size of which should be large enough
to contain the mucilage with about one-
fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the product
should fill it about four -fifths full). Now
tare, and wash the gum with distilled wa-
ter, letting the latter drain away as much
as possible before proceeding further.
Add the requisite quantity of distilled
water slowly, which, however, should
first have added to it about 10 per cent of
limewater. Now cork the flask, and lay
it, without shaking, horizontally in a cool
place and let it remain quietly for about
3 hours, then give it a half turn to the
right without disturbing its horizontal
position. Repeat this operation three or
four times during the day, and keep it
up until the gum is completely dissolved
(which will not be until the fourth day
probably), then strain through a thin
cloth previously wet with distilled wa-
ter, avoiding, in so doing, the formation
of foam or bubbles. This precaution
should also be observed in decantation
of the percolate into smaller bottles pro-
vided with paraffine corks. The small
amount of lime water, as will be under-
stood, is added to the solvent water in
order to prevent the action of free acid.
Commercial Mucilage. — Dissolve \
pound white glue in equal parts water
and strong vinegar, and add \ as much
alcohol and \ ounce alum dissolved in a
little water. To proceed, first get good
glue and soak in cold water until it
swells and softens. Use pale vinegar.
Pour off the cold water, then melt the
glue to a thick paste in hot water, and
add the vinegar hot. When a little cool
add the alcohol and alum water.
To Render Gum Arabic More Ad-
hesive.— I. — Add crystallized aluminum
sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved
in 20 parts of water to 250 parts of con-
centrated gum solution (75 parts of gum
in 175 parts of water).
II. — Add to 250 parts of concentrated
gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5 parts
of water) 2 parts of crystallized alumi-
num sulphate dissolved in 20 parts of
water. This mixture glues even unsized
paper, pasteboard on pasteboard, wood
on wood, glass, porcelain, and other
substances on which labels frequently do
not adhere well.
Envelope Gum. — The gum used by
the United States Government on postage
stamps is probably one of the best that
could be used not only for envelopes but
for labels as well. It will stick to almost
any surface. Its composition is said to
be the following:
Gum arabic 1 part
Starch 1 part
Sugar 4 parts
Water, sufficient to
give the desired con-
sistency.
The gum arabic is first dissolved in
some water, the sugar added, then the
starch, after which the mixture is boiled
for a few minutes in order to dissolve
the starch, after which it is thinned down
to the desired consistency.
Cheaper envelope gums can be made
by substituting dextrine for the gum
arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding
boric acid to preserve and help stiffen it.
Mucilage to Make Wood and Paste-
board Adhere to Metals. — Dissolve 50
parts, by weight, of lead acetate together
with 5 parts, by weight, of alum in a little
water. Make a separate solution of 75
parts, by weight, of gum arabic in 2,000
parts, by weight, of water, stir in this 500
ADHESIVES
parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly
to boiling, stirring the while. Let it cool
somewhat, and mix with it the solution
containing the lead acetate and alum,
stirring them well together.
Preservation of Gum Solution. — Put a
small piece of camphor in the mucilage
bottle. Camphor vapors are generated
which kill all the bacterial germs that
have entered the bottle. The gum main-
tains its adhesiveness to the last drop.
ADULTERANTS IN FOODS:
See Foods.
ADUROL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
JESCO -QUININE :
See Horse Chestnut.
AGAR AGAR PASTE:
See Adhesives.
AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.
Prepare a mixture or frit of 33 parts
of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium phos-
phate, and 2 parts of potash. The frit,
which has been reduced by heat to the
fusing point, is finely ground, intimately
mingled with a small quantity of kaolin
and pressed in molds which yield button-
shaped masses. These masses, after hav-
ing been fired, are given a transparent
glaze by any of the well-known processes.
AGATE (IMITATION):
See Gems, Artificial.
AGING OF SILK:
See Silk.
AGING, SILVER AND GOLD:
See Plating.
AIR BATH.
This air bath is employed in cases
in which, upon drying or heating sub-
stances, acid vapors arise because the
walls of the bath are not attacked by
them. For the production of the drying
apparatus take a flask with the bottom
burst off or a bell jar tubulated above.
This is placed either upon a sand bath
or upon asbestos paper, previously laid
upon a piece of sheet iron. The sand
bath or the sheet iron is put on a tripod,
so that it can be heated by means of a
burner placed underneath. The sub-
stance to be dried is placed in a glass or
porcelain dish, which is put under the
bell jar, and if desired the drying dish
may be hung on the tripod. For regu-
lating the temperature the tubulure of
the jar is closed with a pierced cork,
through whose aperture the thermom-
eter is thrust. In order to permit the
vapors to escape, the cork is grooved
lengthwise along the periphery.
AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE:
See Gelatine.
AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLU-
TIONS:
See Photography.
AIR-PURIFYING.
Ozonatine is a fragrant air-purifying
preparation consisting of dextrogyrate
turpentine oil scented with slight quan-
tities of fragrant oils.
ALABASTER CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALBATA METAL:
See Alloys.
ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION
OF.
Patein (Pharm. Zeit.) recommends the
following test for albumen in urine:
Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a
sufficient quantity of water, add enough
ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams
of alcohol, and finally enough water to
make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated)
urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammo-
nium-citrate solution made as above is
added, and the whole heated in the usual
manner. The appearance of the faint-
est turbidity is said to indicate with pos-
itive certainty the presence of albumen.
ALBUMEN PAPER:
See Photography.
ALBUMEN PASTE:
See Adhesives.
Alcohol
After the manuscript of this book was
ready for the press, Congress passed the
bill which has since become a law, whereby
the prohibitive tax on industrial or de-
natured alcohol is removed. So impor-
tant is this legislative measure that the
Editor has deemed it wise to insert an
article on the sources of alcohol and the
manufacture of alcohol from farm prod-
ucts. Because the first portion of the
book was in type when this step was de-
cided upon, the Editor was compelled to
relegate to a later page a monograph
which should properly have appeared
here. The reader will find the matter
on alcohol referred to under the heading
ALCOHOL
"Spirit"; likewise methods of denaturing
and a list of denaturants.
ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF:
See Tables.
Alcohol, Tests for Absolute.— The
committee for the compilation of the
German Arzneibuch established the fol-
lowing tests for the determination of ab-
solute alcohol:
Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, vol-
atile, readily imflammable liquid which
burns with a faintly luminous flame.
Absolute alcohol has a peculiar odor, a
burning taste, and does not affect litmus
paper. Boiling point, 78.50. Specific
gravity, 0.795 to 0.797. One hundred
parts contain 99.7 to 99.4 parts, by vol-
ume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by weight, of
alcohol.
Absolute alcohol should have no for-
eign smell and should mix with water
without cloudiness.
After the admixture of 5 drops of sil-
ver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic centimeters
of absolute alcohol should not become
turbid or colored even on heating.
A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of
absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic centimeter
of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic
centimeter should not exhibit an odor of
fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute
sulphuric acid.
Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric
acid, carefully covered, in a test tube,
with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of
absolute alcohol, should not form a rose-
colored zone at the surface of contact,
even on standing for some time.
The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic
centimeters of absolute alcohol and 1
cubic centimeter of potassium -perman-
ganate solution should not pass into
yellow before 20 minutes.
Absolute alcohol should not be dyed
by hydrogen sulphide water or by aque-
ous ammonia.
Five cubic centimeters of absolute al-
cohol should not leave behind a weighable
residue after evaporation on water bath.
Absolute Alcohol. — If gelatine be sus-
pended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb
the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol,
that substance will remain behind, and
thus nearly absolute alcohol will be ob-
tained without distillation.
Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol. —
East India lemon oil 1,250 parts
Mirbane oil 1,000 parts
Cassia oil 50 parts
Clove oil 75 parts
Lemon oil 100 parts
Amyl acetate 500 parts
Spirit (95 per cent) . 7,000 parts
Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add
the amyl acetate. The mixture serves
for destroying the bad odor of denatur-
ized spirit in distilling. Use 50 parts of
the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.
Solid Alcohol.— I.— Heat 1,000 parts of
denaturized alcohol (90 per cent) in a flask
of double the capacity on the water bath
to about 140° F., and then mix with 28 to
30 parts of well-dried, rasped Venetian
soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After re-
peated shaking, complete dissolution
will take place. The solution is put,
while still warm, into metallic vessels,
closing them up at once and allowing the
mixture to cool therein. The admix-
ture of gum lac effects a better preserva-
tion and also prevents the evaporation of
the alcohol. On lighting the solid spirit
the soap remains behind.
II. — Smaragdine is a trade name for
solidified alcohol. It consists of alcohol
and gun cotton, colored with malachite
green. It appears in the market in the
form of small cubes.
Alcohol in Fermented Beers. — Expe-
rience has shown that \ pound of sugar
to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent
of proof spirit, or about 1 per cent of ab-
solute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is
not safe to go, if the legal limit is to be
observed, yet a ginger beer brewed with
| pound per gallon of sugar would be a
very wishy-washy compound, and there
is little doubt that a much larger quantity
is generally used. The more sugar that
is used — up to H or 1J pounds per gallon
— the better the • drink will be and the
more customers will relish it; but it will
be as "strong" as lager and contain per-
haps 5 per cent of alcohol, which will make
it anything but a "temperance" drink.
Any maker who is using as much as even
£ pound of sugar per gallon is bound to
get more spirit than the law allows.
Meanwhile it is scarcely accurate to term
ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.
Alcohol Deodorizer. —
Alcohol 160 ounces
Powdered quicklime. 300 grains
Powdered alum 150 grains
Spirit of nitrous ether 1£ drachms
Mix the lime and alum intimately by
'trituration; add the alcohol and shake
well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether;
set aside for 7 days and filter through
animal charcoal.
Denaturized Alcohol. — There are two
general classes or degrees of denaturizing,
viz., the "complete" and the "incom-
plete," according to the purpose for
ALCOHOL
which the alcohol so denaturized is to be
ultimately used.
J. — Complete denaturization by the
German system is accomplished by the
addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26£
gallon* > of spirits:
(a) '1 "wo and one-half liters of the "stand-
ard* 'leiiaturizer, made of 4 parts of
wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridiiie (a nitro-
genous base obtained by distilling bone
oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50
grams to each liter of oil of lavender or
rosemary.
(6) One and one-fourth liters of the
above "standard" and 2 liters of benzol
with every 100 liters of alcohol.
II. — Incomplete denaturization — i. e.,
sufficient to prevent alcohol from being
drunk, but not to disqualify it from use
for various special purposes, for which
the wholly denaturized spirits would be
unavailable — is accomplished by several
methods as follows, the quantity and
nature of each substance given being
the prescribed dose for each 100 liters
(26* gallons) of spirits:
(c) Five liters of wood alcohol or |
liter of pyridiiie.
(d~) Twenty liters of solution of shellac,
containing 1 part gum to 2 parts alcohol
of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the
manufacture of celluloid and pegamoid
is denaturized.
(e) By the addition of 1 kilogram of
camphor or 2 liters oil of turpentine or
\ liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits.
Alcohol to be used in the manufacture
of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white lead,
bromo-silver gelatines, photographic pa-
pers and plates, electrode plates, collo-
dion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline
chemistry, and a great number of other
purposes, is denaturized by the addition
of —
(/) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1
part of benzol, or \ part oil of turpentine,
or 0.025 part of animal oil.
For the manufacture of varnishes and
inks alcohol is denaturized by the addi-
tion of oil of turpentine or animal oil,
and for the production of soda soaps by
the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil.
Alcohol for the production of lanolin is
prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to
each hectoliter of spirits.
ALE.
The ale of the modern brewer is man-
ufactured in several varieties, which are
determined by the wants of the consumer
and the particular market for which it
is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of
Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other
like ales, having undergone a thorough
fermentation, contain only a small quan-
tity of undecomposed sugar and gum,
varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of
these are highly "hopped" or "bittered,"
the further to promote their preservation
during transit and change of temper-
ature. Mild or sweet ales, on the con-
trary, are less accentuated by lengthened
fermentation, and abound in saccharine
and gummy matter. They are, there-
fore, more nutritious, though less intox-
icating, than those previously referred to.
In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale
malt and the best hops of the current
season's growth are always employed;
and when it is desired to produce a liquor
possessing little color, very great atten-
tion is paid to their selection. With the
same object, the boiling is conductedwith
more than the usual precautions, and the
fermentation is carried on at a somewhat
lower temperature than that commonly
allowed for other varieties of beer. For
ordinary ale, intended for immediate use,
the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor
be brewed for keeping, and in warm
weather, when a slight color is not objec-
tionable, one-fifth, or even one-fourth of
amber malt may be advantageously em-
ployed. From 4i to 6 pounds of hops is
the quantity commonly used to the one-
fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7
pounds to 10 pounds for "keeping" ales.
The proportions, however, must greatly
depend on the intended quality and de-
scription of the brewing and the period
that will be allowed for its maturation.
The stronger varieties of ale usually
contain from 6 to 8 per cent of "absolute
alcohol"; ordinary strong ale, 41 to 6 per
cent; mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale,
1 to 1* per cent (each by volume); togeth-
er with some undecomposed saccharine,
gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter
and narcotic principles of the hop, some
acetic acid formed by the oxidation of
the alcohol, and very small and variable
quantities of mineral and saline matter.
Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale),
sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly
boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops,
and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats,
until the whole of the soluble matter of
the latter is extracted. The resulting
liquor, after being run through a coarse
strainer and become lukewarm, is fer-
mented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and,
as soon as the fermentation is at its
height, is either closely bunged up for
draft or is at once put into strong stone-
ware bottles, which are then well corked
and wired.
White ale is said to be very nutritious,
though apt to prove laxative to those un-
ALLOYS
47
accustomed to its use. It is drunk in a
state of effervescence or lively fermenta-
tion; the glass or cup containing it being
kept in constant motion, when removed
irom the mouth, until the whole is con-
sumed, in order that the thicker portion
may not subside to the bottom.
ALE, GINGER:
See Beverages.
ALFENIDE METAL:
See Alloys.
ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT:
See Soaps.
ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO:
See Atropine.
Alloys
No general rules can be given for
alloying metals. Alloys differing greatly
in fusibility are commonly made by
adding the more fusible ones, either in
the melted state or in small portions at a
time, to the other melted or heated to
the lowest possible temperature at which
a perfect union will take place between
them. The mixture is usually effected
under a flux, or some material that will
promote liquefaction and prevent vola-
tilization and unnecessary exposure to
the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin
together for solder, rosin or tallow is
thrown upon the surface is rubbed with
sal ammoniac; and in combining some
metals, powdered charcoal is used for
the same purpose. Mercury or quick-
silver combines with many metals in the
cold, forming AMALGAMS, or easily fusible
alloys (q. v.).
Alloys generally possess characteris-
tics unshared by their component metals.
Thus, copper and zinc form brass,
which has a different density, hardness,
and color from either of its constituents.
Whether the metals tend to unite in
atomic proportions or in any definite
ratio is still undetermined. The evi-
dence afforded by the natural alloys of
gold and silver, and by the phenomena
accompanying the cooling of several
alloys from the state of fusion, goes far
to prove that such is the case (Rud-
berg). The subject is, however, one of
considerable difficulty, as metals and
metallic compounds are generally solu-
ble in each other, and unite by simple
fusion and contact. That they do not
combine indifferently with each other,
but exercise a species of elective affinity
not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly
shown by the homogeneity and superior
quality of many alloys in which the con-
stituent metals are in atomic proportion.
The variation of the specific gravity and
melting points of alloys from the mean
of those of their component metals also
affords strong evidence of a chemical
change having taken place. Thus, alloys
generally melt at lower temperatures than
their separate metals. They also usually
possess more tenacity and hardness than
the mean of their constituents.
Matthiessen found that when weights
are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn
wire made of copper, gold, or platinum,
they become nearly straightened when
stretched by a moderate weight; but
wires of equal dimensions composed of
copper-tin (12 per cent of tin), silver-
platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and
gold-copper (84 percent of copper) scarce-
ly undergo any permanent change in form
when subjected to tension by the same
weight.
The same chemist gives the following
approximate results upon the tenacity
of certain metals and wires hard-drawn
through the same gauge (No. 23) :
Pounds
Copper, breaking strain 25-30
Tin, breaking strain under 7
Lead, breaking strain under 7
Tin-lead (20% lead) about 7
Tin-copper (12% copper). . .about 7
Copper-tin (12% tin) about 80-90
Gold (12% tin) 20-25
Gold-copper (8.4% copper) 70-75
Silver (8.4% copper) 45-50
Platinum (8.4% copper) 45-50
Silver-platinum (30% platinum) . 75-80
On the other hand, the malleability,
ductility, and power of resisting oxygen
of alloys is generally diminished. The
alloy formed of two brittle metals is
always brittle; that of a brittle and a duc-
tile metal, generally so; and even two
ductile metals sometimes unite to form
a brittle compound. The alloys formed
of metals having different fusing points
are usually malleable while cold and
brittle while hot. The action of the air
on alloys is generally less than on their
simple metals, unless the former are
heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and
3 parts of lead is scarcely acted on at
common temperatures; but at a red heat
it readily takes fire, and continues to
burn for some time like a piece of bad
turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin
and zinc, when strongly heated, de-
composes both moist air and steam with
rapidity.
The specific gravity of alloys is rarely
48
ALLOYS
the arithmetical mean of that of their
constituents, as commonly taught; and
in many cases considerable condensation
or expansion occurs. When there is a
strong affinity between two metals, the
density of their alloy is generally greater
than the calculated mean; and vice versa,
as may be seen in the following table:
ALLOYS HAVING A DENSITY
Greater than the Mean of their Constit-
uents:
Copper and bismuth,
Copper and palladium,
Copper and tin,
Copper and zinc,
Gold and antimony,
Gold and bismuth,
Gold and cobalt,
Gold and tin,
Gold and zinc,
Lead and antimony,
Palladium and bismuth,
Silver and antimony,
Silver and bismuth,
Silver and lead,
Silver and tin,
Silver and zinc.
Less than the Mean of their Constituents:
Gold and copper,
Gold and iridium,
Gold and iron,
Gold and lead,
Gold and nickel,
Gold and silver,
Iron and antimony,
Iron and bismuth,
Iron and lead,
Nickel and arsenic,
Silver and copper,
Tin and antimony,
Tin and lead,
Tin and palladium,
Zinc and antimony.
Compounding Alloys. — Considerable
experience is necessary to insure success
in compounding alloys, especially when
the metals employed vary greatly in
fusibility and volatility. The following
are rules supplied by an experienced
workman:
1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable,
and volatile first, and then add the others
heated to their point of fusion or near it.
Thus, if it is desired to make an alloy of
exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it
will be impossible to do so by putting
proportions of the metals in a crucible
and exposing the whole to heat. Much
of the zinc would fly off in vapor before
the copper was melted. First, melt the
copper and add the zinc, which has been
melted in another crucible. The zinc
should be in excess, as some of it will be
lost anyway.
2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc,
copper and arsenic, may be formed by
exposing heated plates of the least fusi-
ble metal to the vapor of the other. In
making brass in the large way, thin plates
of copper are dissolved, as it were, in
melted zinc until the proper proportions
have been obtained.
3. The surface of all oxidizable metals
should be covered with some protecting
agent, as tallow for very fusible ones,
rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc,
copper, etc.
^4. Stir the metal before casting and
if possible, when casting, with a white-
wood stick; this is much better for the
purpose than an iron rod.
5. If possible, add a small portion of
old alloy to the new. If the alloy is re-
quired to make sharp castings and
strength is not a very great oVject, the
proportion of old alloy to the new should
be increased. In all cases a new or
thoroughly well-cleansed crucible should
be used.
To obtain metals and metallic alloys
from their compounds, such as oxides,
sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately
patented makes use of the reducing
qualities of aluminum or its alloys with
magnesium. The finely powdered ma-
terial (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a
crucible mixed with aluminum oxide.
The mixture is set afire by means of a
soldering pipe or a burning magnesium
wire, and the desired reaction takes place.
For igniting, one may also employ with
advantage a special priming cartridge
consisting of pulverized aluminum to
which a little magnesium may be mixed,
and peroxide of magnesia, which is
shaped into balls and lighted with a
magnesium wire. By suitable additions
to the pulverized mixture, alloys con-
taining aluminum, magnetism, chro-
mium, manganese, copper, iron, boron,
silicic acid, etc., are obtained.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the
Comptes Rendus, from time to time, the
results of his investigations into the alloys
of aluminum with soft metals, and the
following constitutes a brief summary of
his observations:
Lead. — When aluminum is melted
and lead is added in proportion greater
than 10 per cent, the metals separate on
cooling into three layers — lead, alumi-
num, and between them an alloy contain-
ing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum.
ALLOYS
The albys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent have
densities of 2.745, 2.674, and 2.600 re-
spectively, and melting points near that
of aluminum. Their color is like that
of aluminum, but they are less lustrous.
All are malleable, easily cut, softer than
aluminum, and have a granular fracture.
On remelting they become somewhat
richer in lead, through a tendency to
liquation. They do not oxidize in moist
air, nor at their melting points. They
are attacked in the cold by hydrochloric
and by strong sulphuric acid, with evo-
lution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric
acid when hot; strong solution of po-
tassium hydroxide also attacks them.
They are without action on distilled
water, whether cold or hot.
Zinc. — Well-defined alloys were ob-
tained, corresponding to the formulas
Zn3Al, Zn2Al, ZnAl, ZnAl2, ZnAl3,
ZnAl4, ZnAl6, ZnAl10, ZnAl12. Their
melting points and densities all lie be-
tween those of zinc and aluminum, and
those containing most zinc are the hard-
est. They are all dissolved by cold
hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric
acid. Cold concentrated nitric acid at-
tacks the first three, and cold dilute acid
the first five. The Zn3Al, ZnAlR, ZnAl10,
and ZnAl12 are only slightly affected by
cold potassium-hydroxide solution; the
others are strongly attacked, potassium
zincate and aluminate probably being
formed.
Tin. — A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy
plunged in cold water gives off for some
minutes bubbles of gas, composed of
hydrogen and oxygen in explosive pro-
portions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod
of either aluminum or tin, is without
action, though the unfiled rod of alloy
will act on boiling water. The filed rod
of alloy, in faintly acid solution of cop-
per or zinc sulphate, becomes covered
with a deposit of copper or zinc, while
bubbles of oxygen are given off. M.
Pecheux believes that the metals are truly
alloyed only at the surface, and that filing
lays bare an almost infinitely numerous
series of junctions of the two metals,
which, heated by the filing, act as ther-
mocouples.
Bismuth. — By the method used for
lead, bismuth alloys were obtained con-
taining 75, 85, 88, and 94 per cent of
aluminum, with densities 2.86, 2.79,
2.78. and 2.74 respectively. They were
sonorous, brittle, finely grained, and
homogeneous, silver-white, and with
melting points between those of their con-
stituents, but nearer that of aluminum.
They are not oxidized in air at the tem-
perature of casting, but are readily at-
tacked by acids, concentrated or dilute,
and by potassium-hydroxide solution.
The filed alloys behave like those of tin,
but still more markedly.
Magnesium. — These were obtained
with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent
of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47,
2.32, 2.37, 2.47. They are brittle, with
large granular fracture, silver-white, file
well, take a good polish, and have melt-
ing points near that of aluminum.
Being viscous when melted, they are dif-
ficult to cast, and when slowly cooled
form a gray, spongy mass which cannot
be remelted. They do not oxidize in
air at the ordinary temperatures, but
burn readily at a bright-red heat. They
are attacked violently by acids and by
potassium-hydroxide solution, decom-
pose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly de-
compose water even in the cold.
Tin, Bismuth, and Magnesium. —The
action of water on these alloys just re-
ferred to has been recently demonstrated
on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters
of hydrogen having been obtained in 20
minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the
filed tin alloy. The bismuth alloy yield-
ed more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and
the magnesium alloy more than the bis-
muth alloy. The oxygen of the decom-
posed water unites with the aluminum.
Larger quantities of hydrogen are ob-
tained from copper-sulphate solution,
apart from the decomposition of this
solution by precipitation of copper at the
expense of the metal alloyed with the
aluminum. The alloys of aluminum
with zinc and lead do not decompose
pure water, but do decompose the water
of copper-sulphate solution, and, more
slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution.
Aluminum is a metal whose properties
are very materially influenced by a pro-
portionately small addition of copper.
Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and 1 per
cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish
in color; 95 per cent of aluminum and 5
per cent of copper give an alloy which can
be hammered, but with 10 per cent of cop-
per the metal can no longer be worked.
With 80 per cent and upward of copper
are obtained alloys of a beautiful yellow
color, and these mixtures, containing from
5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90
to 95 per cent of copper, are the genuine
aluminum bronzes. The 10-per-cent al-
loys are of a pure golden-yellow color;
with 5 per cent of aluminum they are
reddish yellow, like gold heavily alloyed
with copper, and a 2-per-cent admix-
ture is 01 an almost pure copper red
50
ALLOYS
As the proportion of copper increases,
the brittleness is diminished, and alloys
containing 10 per cent and less of aluminum
can be used for industrial purposes, the
best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and
10 of aluminum. The hardness of this
alloy approaches that of the general
bronzes, whence its name. It can be
stretched out into thin sheets between
rollers, worked under the hammer, and
shaped as desired by beating or pressure,
in powerful stamping presses. On ac-
count of its hardness it takes a fine pol-
ish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color
resembles that of gold alloyed with cop-
per and silver together.
Alloys with a still greater proportion of
copper approach this metal more and
more nearly in their character; the color
of an alloy, for instance, composed of
95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of alu-
minum, can be distinguished from pure
gold only by direct comparison, and the
metal is very hard, and also very mal-
leable.
Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum
Alloys. — During three years' exposure to
the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys
in one test gradually diminished in con-
ductivity in proportion to the amount of
copper they contained. The nickel-copper
aluminum alloys, which show such re-
markably increased tensile strength as
compared with good commercial alumi-
num, considerably diminished in total con-
ductivity. On the other hand, the man-
ganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered
comparatively little diminution in total
conductivity, and one of them retained
comparatively high tensile strength. It
was thought that an examination of
the structure of these alloys by aid of
microphotography might throw some
light on the great difference which exists
between some of their physical proper-
ties. For instance, a nickel-copper alu-
minum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile
strength of ordinary commercial alumi-
num. Under a magnification of 800
diameters practically no structure could
be discovered. Considering the re-
markable crystalline structure exhibited
by ordinary commercial aluminum near
the surface of an ingot, when allowed to
solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of
structure in these alloys must be attrib-
uted to the process of drawing down.
The inference is that the great differ-
ence which exists between their tensile
strengths and other qualities is not due
to variation in structure.
Colored Alloys of Aluminum. — A pur-
ple scintillating composition is produced
by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22
parts aluminum, \\ith platinum a gold-
colored alloy is obtained; with palladium
a copper-colored one; and with cobalt
and nickel one of a yellow color. Easily
fusible metals of the color of aluminum
give white alloys. Metal difficult of
fusion, such as iridium, osmium, tita-
nium, etc., appear in abnormal tones of
color through such alloyages.
Aluminum -Brass. — Aluminum, 1 per
cent; specific gravity, 8.35 ; tensile strength,
40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific grav-
ity, 8.33; tensile strength, 65. The last
named is harder than the first.
Aluminum-Copper. — Minikin is prin-
cipally aluminum with a small percent-
age of copper and nickel. It is alloyed
by mixing the aluminum and copper,
then adding the nickel. It resembles
palladium and is very strong.
Aluminum - Silver. — I. — Silver, 3 per
cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A hand-
some color.
II. — A silver aluminum that is easily
worked into various articles contains
about one-fourth silver and three-fourths
of aluminum.
Aluminum -Tin. — Bourbon metal is
composed of equal parts of aluminum
and tin; it solders readily.
Aluminum -Tungsten. — A new metal
alloy consisting of aluminum and tung-
sten is used of late in France in the (4m-
struction of conveyances, especially (Car-
riages, bicycles, and motor vehicles.
The French call it partinium; the com-
position of the new alloy varies according
to the purposes for which it is used. It
is considerably cheaper than aluminum,
almost as light, and has a greater resist-
ance. The strength is stated at 32 to 37
kilograms per square millimeter.
Aluminum-Zinc. — Zinc, 3 per cent:
aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile,
white, and harder than aluminum.
AMALGAMS :
See Fusible Alloys.
Anti-Friction Bearing or Babbitt Met-
als.— These alloys are usually supported by
bearings of brass, into which it is poured
after they have been tinned, and heated
and put together with an exact model of
the axle, or other working piece, plastic
clay being previously applied, in the
usual manner, as a lute or outer mold.
Soft gun metal is also excellent, and is
much used for bearings. They all be-
come less heated in working than the
ALLOYS
51
harder metals, and less grease or oil is con-
sequently required when they are used.
I. — An anti-friction metal of excellent
quality and one that has been used with
success is made as follows : 17 parts
zinc; 1 part copper; li parts antimony;
prepared in the following way: Melt the
copper in a small crucible, then add the
antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being
taken not to burn the zinc. Burning
can be prevented by allowing the copper
and antimony to cool slightly before add-
ing the zinc. This metal is preferably
cast into the shape desired and is not
used as a lining metal because it requires
too great a heat to pour. It machines
nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing
surfaces. It has the appearance of
aluminum when finished. Use a lubri-
cating oil made from any good grade of
machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene
have been added.
II. — Copper, 6 parts; tin, 12 parts;
lead, 150 parts; antimony, 30 parts;
wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part.
For certain purposes the composition is
modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts;
tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony,
24 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron,
1 part. In both cases the wrought iron
is cut up in small pieces, and in this state
it will melt readily in fused copper and
cast iron. After the mixture has been
well stirred, the tin, lead,. and antimony
are added; these are previously melted in
separate crucibles, and when mingled the
whole mass is again stirred thoroughly.
The product may then be run into ingots,
to be employed when needed. When
run into the molds the surface should be
well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes
rapidly. The proportions may be varied
without materially affecting the results.
III.— From tin, 16 to 20 parts; anti-
mony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused to-
gether, and then blended with copper,
80 parts. Used where there is much
friction or high velocity.
IV. — Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; cop-
per, 20 parts. Used when the metal is
exposed to violent shocks.
V. — Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc,
4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when
the metal is exposed to heat.
VI. — Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5
parts; copper, 1 part.
VII.— (Fenton's.) Tin, with some
zinc, and a little copper.
VIII. — (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard
pewter, with or without a small portion
of antimony or copper. Without the
last it is apt to spread out under the
weight of heavy machinery. Used for
the bearings of locomotives, etc.
The following two compositions are
for motor and dynamo shafts: 100
pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds
antimony.
83A- pounds tin; 8-J pounds antimony;
8J pounds copper.
IX.— Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 23
parts; tin, 2 parts.
X. — Magnolia Metal. — This is com-
posad of 40 parts of lead, 7* parts of
antimony, 2i of tin, J of bismuth, J of
aluminum, and J of graphite. It is used
as an anti-friction metal, and takes its
name from its manufacturer's mark,
a magnolia flower.
ARGENTAN :
See German Silver, under this title.
BELL METAL.
The composition of bell metal raries
considerably, as may be seen below:
I. — (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts;
tin, 22 parts; fused together and cast.
The most sonorous of all the alloys of
copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and
has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous
conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture.
According to Klaproth, the finest-toned
Indian gongs have this composition.
II. — (Founder's Standard.) Copper,
77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts.
Slightly paler and inferior to No. I.
III. — Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.
Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used
in China and India for the larger gongs,
tam-tams, 'etc.
IV.— Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to
20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese
cymbals, tam-tams, etc.
V.— Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25
(=1) part. Somewhat brittle. In frac-
ture, semivitreous and bluish-red. Used
for church and other large bells.
VI.— Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10| parts;
zinc, 5 1 parts; lead, 4J parts. English
bell metal, according to Thomson. In-
ferior to the last; the lead being apt to
form isolated drops, to the injury of the
uniformity of the alloy.
VIL— Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts.
Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-
gray. Best proportions for house bells,
and bells, etc.; for which, however, 2
of copper and 1 of tin is commonly
substituted by the founders.
VIII.— Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26* parts;
iron, 1 A parts. Used by the Paris houses
for the bells of small clocks.
IX. — Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts;
zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for
very small bells.
X.— Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts;
ALLOYS
zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeat-
ing watches.
XI. — Melt together copper, 100 parts;
tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the
required object, it should be made red-
hot, and then plunged immediately into
cold water in order to impart to it the
requisite degree of sonorousness. For
cymbals and gongs.
XII. — Melt together copper, 80 parts;
tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be
hammered out with frequent annealing.
XIII. — Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts;
This is superior to the former, and it can
be rolled out. For tam-tams and gongs.
XIV.— Melt together copper, 72 parts;
tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron -fy part. Used
in making the bells of ornamental French
clocks.
Castings in bell metal are all more or
less brittle; and, when recent, have a
color varying from a dark ash-gray to
grayish-white, which is darkest in the
more cuprous varieties, in which it
turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or
bluish-red. The larger the proportion
of copper in the alloy, the deeper and
graver the tone of the bells formed of
it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc,
causes them to give out their tones sharp-
er. Bismuth and lead are also often
used to modify the tone, which each
metal affects differently. The addition
of antimony and bismuth is frequently
made by the founder to give a more crys-
talline grain to the alloy. All these
conditions are, however, prejudicial to
the sonorousness of bells, and of very
doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration
increases the sonorousness of all these
alloys. Hence M. D'Arcet recommends
that the "pieces" be heated to a cherry-
red after they are cast, and after having
been suddenly plunged into cold water,
that they be submitted to well-regulated
pressure by skillful hammering, until they
assume their proper form ; after which they
are to be again heated and allowed to cool
slowly in the air. This is the method
adopted by the Chinese with their gongs,
etc., a casing of sheet iron being em-
ployed by them to support and protect
the pieces during the exposure to heat.
In a general way, however, bells are
formed and completed by simple casting.
This is necessarily the case with all very
large bells. Where the quality of their
tones is the chief object sought after, the
greatest care should be taken to use com-
mercially pure copper. The presence
of a very little lead or any similar metal
greatly lessens the sonorousness of this
alloy; while that of silver increases it.
The specific gravity of a large bell is
seldom uniform through its whole sub-
stance; nor can the specific gravity from
any given portion of its constituent met-
als be exactly calculated owing to the
many interfering circumstances. The
nearer this uniformity is approached, or,
in other words, chemical combination is
complete, the more durable and finer-
toned will be the bell. In general, it is
found necessary to take about one-tenth
more metal than the weight of the in-
tended bell, or bells, in order to allow for
waste and scorification during the opera-
tions of fusing and casting.
BISMUTH ALLOYS.
Bismuth possesses the unusual quality
of expanding in cooling. It is, there-
fore, introduced in many alloys to reduce
or check shrinkage in the mold.
For delicate castings, and for taking
impressions from dies, medals, etc., va-
rious bismuth alloys are in use, whose
composition corresponds to the follow-
ing figures:
I II III IV
Bismuth 6 5 2 8
Tin 3 2 1 3
Lead 13 3 1 5
V.— Cliche Metal.— This alloy is com-
posed of tin, 48 parts; lead, 32.5; bis-
muth, 9; and antimony, 10.5. It is es-
pecially well adapted to dabbing rollers
for printing cotton goods, and as it pos-
sesses a considerable degree of hardness,
it wears well.
VI. — For filling out defective places in
metallic castings, an alloy of bismuth 1
part, antimony 3, lead 8, can be ad-
vantageously used.
VII.— For Cementing Glass.— Most
of the cements in ordinary use are dis-
solved, or at least softened, by petro-
leum. An alloy of lead 3 parts, tin 2,
bismuth 2.5, melting at 212° F., is not
affected by petroleum, and is therefore
very useful for cementing lamps made of
metal and glass combined.
LIPOWITZ'S BISMUTH ALLOY :
See Cadmium Alloys.
BRASS.
In general brass is composed of two-
thirds copper and one-third zinc, but a
little lead or tin is sometimes advanta-
geous, as the following:
I. — Red copper, 66 parts; zinc, 34
parts; lead, 1 part.
II. — Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts;
tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.
III.— Copper, 64.5 parts; zinc, 33.5
parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 0.5 part.
Brass -Aluminum. — A small addition of
aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8 per cent) great-
ALLOYS
53
ly increases its hardness and elasticity,
and this alloy is also easily worked for any
purpose. Brass containing 8 per cent of
aluminum has the valuable property of
being but slightly affected by acids or gases.
A larger percentage of aluminum makes
the brass brittle. It is to be noted that
aluminum brass decreases very materi-
ally in volume in casting, and the casts
must be copied slowly or they will be
brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and
its low price, combined with its excellent
qualities, would seem to make it in many
cases an advantageous substitute for the
expensive phosphorous bronze.
Bristol Brass (Prince's Metal).— This
alloy, which possesses properties similar
to those of French brass, is prepared in
the following proportions:
I II III
Copper 75.7 67.2 60.8
Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2
Particular care is required to prevent
the zinc from evaporating during the fus-
ing, and for this purpose it is customary
to put only half of it into the first melting,
and to add the remainder when the first
mass is liquefied.
Brass -Iron (Aich's Metal).— This is
a variety of brass with an admixture of
iron, which gives it a considerable degree
of tenacity. It is especially adapted for
purposes which require a hard and, at
the same time, tenacious metal. Analyses
of the various kinds of this metal show
considerable variation in the proportions.
Even the amount of iron, to which the
hardening effect must be attributed, may
vary within wide limits without materi-
ally modifying the tenacity which is the
essential characteristic of this alloy.
I. — The best variety of Aich's metal
consists of copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.2;
iron, 1.8. The predominating quality of
this alloy is its hardness, which is claimed
to be not inferior to that of certain kinds
of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow
color, and is said not to oxidize easily, a
valuable property for articles exposed to
the action of air and water.
II. — Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2;
iron, 1.6. The permissible variations
in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3
per cent.
Sterro metal may properly be consid-
ered in connection with Aich's metal,
since its constituents are the same and
its properties very similar. The principal
difference between the two metals is
that sterro metal contains a much larger
amount of iron. The composition of
this alloy varies considerably with dif-
ferent manufacturers.
III. — Two varieties of excellent qual-
ity are the product of the Rosthorn fac-
tory, in Lower Austria — copper, 55.33
parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66. Also
IV. — English sterro metal (Gedge's
alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60
parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5.
The great value of this alloy lies in its
strength, which is equaled only by that
of the best steel. As an illustration of
this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a
pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a
similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the
enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres
without cracking. Besides its remark-
able strength, it possesses a high degree
of elasticity, and is, therefore, particular-
ly suitable for purposes which require
the combination of these two qualities,
such as the construction of hydraulic
cylinders. It is well known that these
cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to
sweat, that is, the interior pressure is so
great that the water permeates through
the pores of the steel. With a sterro
metal cylinder, the pressure can be con-
siderably increased without any mois-
ture being perceptible on the outside of
the cylinder.
Sterro metal can be made even more
hard and dense, if required for special
purposes, but this is effected rather by
mechanical manipulation than by any
change in the chemical composition. If
rolled or hammered in heat, its strength
is increased, and it acquires, in addition,
an exceedingly high degree of tenacity.
Special care must be taken, however, in
hammering not to overheat the metal,
as in this case it would become brittle and
might crack under the hammer. Sterro
metal is especially suitable for all the
purposes for which the so-called red
metal has been in the past almost ex-
clusively used. Axle bearings, for ex-
ample, made of sterro metal have such
excellent qualities that many machine
factories are now using this material
entirely for the purpose.
Cast Brass. — The various articles of
bronze, so called, statuettes, clock cases,
etc., made in France, where this industry
has attained great perfection and exten-
sive proportions, are not, in many cases^
genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Fol-
lowing are the compositions of a few
mixtures of metals most frequently used
by French manufacturers:
Copper Zinc Tin Lead
1 63.70 33.55 2.50 0.25
II 64.45 32.44 0.25 2.86
HI 70.90 24.05 2.00 3.05
IV.. . 72.43 22.75 1.87 2.95
ALLOYS
Their special advantage is that they
can be readily cast, worked with file and
chisel, and easily gilded.
To Cast Yellow Brass. — If good, clean,
yellow brass sand castings are desired,
the brass should not contain over 30 per
cent of zinc. This will assure an alloy of
good color and one which will run free
and clean. Tin or lead may be added
without affecting the property of casting
clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper,
3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and
3 ounces of lead makes a good casting
alloy and one which will cut free and is
strong. If a stronger alloy be desired,
more tin may be added, but 4 ounces is
usually sufficient. If the alloy be too
hard, reduce the proportion of tin.
Leaf Brass. — This alloy is also called
Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. It
is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts;
zinc-, 15.5 to 22.25. Its color is pale or
bright yellow or greenish, according to
the proportions of the metals. It has an
unusual degree of ductility.
Malleable Brass.— This metal is af-
fected less by sea water than pure copper,
and was formerly much used for ship
sheathing, and for making nails and
rivets which were to come in contact with
sea water. At the present day it has
lost much of its importance, since all the
larger ships are made of steel. It is
usually composed of copper, 60 to 62
parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is
sometimes called yellow metal, or Miintz
metal (called after its inventor), and is
prepared with certain precautions, di-
rected toward obtaining as fine a grain
as possible, experience having shown
that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform
density can resist the action of the sea
water evenly. A metal of uneven den-
sity will wear in holes. To obtain as
uniform a grain as possible, small sam-
ples taken from the fused mass are cooled
quickly and examined as to fracture. If
tney do not show the desired uniform
grain, some zinc is added to the mass.
After it has permeated the whole mass,
a fresh sample is taken and tested, this
being continued until the desired result
is reached. It is scarcely necessary to
remark that considerable experience is
required to tell the correct composition
of the alloy from the fracture. The mass
is finally poured into molds and rolled
cold. Malleable brass can be worked
warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a
valuable quality.
Experiments with malleable brass
show that all alloys containing up to
58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67
per cent of zinc are malleable. There is,
in addition, a second group of such al-
loys, with 61.54 per cent of copper and
38.46 per cent of zinc, which are also
malleable in heat.
The preparation of these alloys re-
quires considerable experience, and is
best accomplished by melting the metals
together in the usual manner, and heating
the fused mass as strongly as possible.
It must be covered with a layer of char-
coal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc.
The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an
intimate mixture of the constituents is
effected. Small pieces of the same alloy
are thrown into the liquid mass until it
no longer shows a reflecting surface,
when it is cast into ingots in iron molds.
The ingots are plunged into water while
still red-hot, and acquire by this treat-
ment a very high degree of ductility. The
alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous
fracture and a reddish-yellow color.
Sheet Brass (For Sheet and Wire).—
In the preparation of brass for the manu-
facture of wire, an especially pure qual-
ity of copper must be used; without this,
all efforts to produce a suitable quality of
brass will be in vain. That pure copper
is indispensable to the manufacture of
good, ductile brass may be seen from the
great difference in the composition of the
various kinds, all of which answer their
purpose, but contain widely varying
quantities of copper and zinc. The fol-
lowing table shows the composition of
some excellent qualities of brass suitable
for making sheet and wire:
Brass Sheet — Source
Cop-
per
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Jemappes
Stolberg
64.6
64.8
70.1
68.1
71.5
71.1
70.1
72.73
63.66
70.16
68.98
33.7
32.8
29.26
31.9
28.5
27.6
29.9
27.27
33.02
27.45
29.54
1.4
2.0
0.38
0.2
0.4
0.17
Romilly
Rosthorn (Vienna).
Rosthorn (Vienna).
Rosthorn (Vienna).
Iserlohn & Romilly
Liidenscheid
(Brittle)
Heeermiihl. .
1.3
2.52
0.79
0.97
0.20
Oker
Brass Wire —
England
70.29
71.89
70.16
71.36
29.26
27.63
27.45
28.15
0.28
0.85
0.2
0.17
6.79
Augsburg
Neustadt
Neustadt
Neustadt
71.5
28.5
Neustadt
71.0
27.6
(Good quality) ....
(Brittle)
For wire and sheet.
65.4
65.5
67.0
34.6
32.4
32.0
2.1
0.5
0.5
ALLOYS
55
As the above figures show, the per-
centage of zinc in the different kinds of
brass lies between 27 and 34. Recently,
alloys containing a somewhat larger
quantity of zinc have been used, it hav-
ing been found that the toughness and
ductility of the brass are increased there-
by, without injury to its tenacity. Al-
loys containing up to 37 per cent of zinc
possess a high degree of ductility in the
cold, and are well adapted for wire and
sheet.
Gilders' Sheet Brass. — Copper, 1 part;
zinc, 1 part; tin, A part; lead, -fa part.
Very readily fusible and very dense.
White Brass. — Birmingham platina is
an alloy of a pure white, almost silver-
white color, remaining unaffected by
tolerably long exposure to the atmos-
phere. Unfortunately this alloy is so
brittle that it can rarely be shaped ex-
cept by casting. It is used only in the
manufacture of buttons. The alloy is
poured into molds giving rather sharp
impressions and allowing the design on
the button (letters or coat of arms) to
stand out prominently with careful
stamping. The composition of this
alloy, also known by the name of plati-
num lead, is as follows:
I II
Copper 46.5 4
Zinc 53.5 16
III. — Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts;
iron, 10 parts.
BRITANNIA METAL.
Britannia metal is an alloy consisting
principally of tin and antimony. Many
varieties contain only these two metals,
and may be considered simply as tin
hardened with antimony, while others
contain, in addition, certain quantities of
copper, sometimes lead, and occasion-
ally, though rarely on account of its cost,
bismuth. Britannia metal is always of a
silvery-white color, with a bluish tinge,
and its hardness makes it capable of
taking a high polish, which is not lost
through exposure to the air. Ninety per
cent of tin and 10 per cent of antimony
gives a composition which is the best for
many purposes, especially for casting, as
it fills out the molds well, and is readily
fusible. In some cases, where articles
made from it are to be subjected to con-
stant wear, a harder alloy is required.
In the proportions given above, the metal
is indeed much harder than tin, but
would still soon give way under usage.
A table is appended, giving the com-
position of some of the varieties of Bri-
tannia metal and their special names.
Tin
Anti-
mony
Cop-
per
Zinc
Lead
English
81.90
16.25
1.84
English
90.62
7.81
1.46
English
90.1
6.3
3.1
6.5
....
English
85.4
9.660.81
3.06
Pewter
81.2
5.7
1.60
11.5
Pewter
89.3
7.6
1.8
1.8
Tutania
91.4
0.7
6.3
7.6
Queen's metal
88.5
7.1
3.5
0.9
German
72.0
24.0
4.0
German
84.0
9.0
2.0
5.6
German (for
casting)
20.0
64.0
10.0
6.0
Malleable (for
casting) ....
48.0
3.0
48.0
1.0
Britannia metal is prepared by melting
the copper alone first, then adding a
part of the tin and the whole of the an-
timony. The heat can then be quickly
moderated, as the melting point of the
new alloy is much lower than that of
copper. Finally, the rest of the tin is
added, and the mixture stirred constantly
for some time to make it thoroughly
homogeneous.
An alloy which bears a resemblance
to Britannia metal is Ashberry metal,
for which there are two formulas.
Copper 2
Tin. 8
Antimony 14
Zinc 1
Nickel 2
II
3
79
15
2
1
BRONZES.
The composition of bronze must be
effected immediately before the casting,
for bronze cannot be kept in store ready
Erepared. In forming the alloy, the re-
-actory compound, copper, is first melted
separately, the other metals, tin, zinc,
etc., previously heated, being then
added; the whole is then stirred and the
casting carried out without loss of time.
The process of forming the alloy must be
effected quickly, so that there may be no
loss of zinc, tin, or lead through oxida-
tion, and also no interruption to the
flow of metal, as metal added after an
interval of time will not combine per-
fectly with the metal already poured in.
It is important, therefore, to ascertain
the specific weights of the metals, for
the heavier metal will naturally tend to
sink to the bottom and the lighter to
collect at the top. Only in this way,
and by vigorous stirring, can the com-
plete blending of the two metals be
secured. In adding the zinc, great care
56
ALLOYS
must be taken that the latter sinks at
once to the level of the copper, otherwise
a considerable portion will be volatilized
before reaching the copper. When the
castings are made, they must be cooled
as quickly as possible, for the compo-
nents of bronze have a tendency to form
separate alloys of various composition,
thus producing the so-called tin spots.
This is much more likely to occur with a
slow than with a sudden cooling of the
mass.
Annealing Bronze. — This process is
more particularly employed in the prep-
aration of alloys used in the manufacture
of cymbals, gongs, bells, etc. The alloy
is naturally brittle, and acquires the
properties essential to the purpose for
which it is intended only after casting.
The instruments are plunged into cold
water while red-hot, hammered, re-
heated, and slowly cooled, when they
become soft and sonorous. The alloy
of copper and tin has the peculiar prop-
erty that, whereas steel becomes hard
through cooling, this mixture, when
cooled suddenly, becomes noticeably soft
and more malleable. The alloy is
heated to a dark-red heat, or, in the case
of thin articles, to the melting point of
lead, and then plunged in cold water.
The alloy may be hammered without
splitting or breaking.
Aluminum Bronze. — This is prepared
by melting the finest copper in a cruci-
ble, and adding the aluminum. The
copper is cooled thereby to the thickly
fluid point, but at the moment of the
combination of the two metals, so much
heat is released that the alloy becomes
white hot and thinly fluid. Aluminum
bronze thus prepared is usually brittle,
and acquires its best qualities only after
having been remelted several times. It
may be remarked that, in order to obtain
a bronze of the best quality, only the very
purest copper must be used; with an infe-
rior quality of copper, all labor is wasted.
Aluminum bronze is not affected by ex-
posure to the air; and its beautiful color
makes it very suitable for manufactur-
ing various ornamental articles, includ-
ing clock cases, door knobs, etc.
Aluminum bronze wire is almost as
strong as good steel wire, and castings
made from it are almost as hard as steely
iron; its resistance to bending or sag-
ging is great.
I. — A good formula is 90 to 95 per cent
of aluminum and 5 to 10 per cent of cop-
per, of golden color, which keeps well in
the air, without soon becoming dull and
changing color like pure copper and its
alloys with tin and zinc (bronze, brass,
etc.). It can be cast excellently, can be
filed well and turned, possesses an ex-
traordinary hardness and firmness, and
attains a high degree of polish; it is
malleable and forgeable. On the latter
quality are founded applications which
were formerly never thought of, viz.:
forged works of art for decorative pur-
poses. An alloy of 95 parts aluminum
and 5 parts copper is used here. The
technical working of bronze is not mate-
rially different from that of iron. The
metal, especially in a hot condition, is
worked like iron on the anvil, with ham-
mer and chisel, only that the tempera-
ture to be maintained in forging lies
between dark and light cherry red. If
the articles are not forged in one piece
and the putting together of the separate
parts becomes necessary, riveting or
soldering has to be resorted to. Besides
forging, aluminum bronze is well suited
for embossing, which is not surprising con-
sidering the high percentage of copper.
After finishing the pieces, the metal can
be toned in manifold ways by treatment
with acid.
II. — Copper, 89 to 98 per cent; alu-
minum and nickel, 1 to 2 per cent. Alu-
minum and nickel change in the opposite
way, that is to say, in increasing the per-
centage of nickel the amount of alu-
minum is decreased by the equal quan-
tity. It should be borne in mind that the
best ratio is aluminum, 9.5 per cent;
nickel, 1 to 1.5 per cent at most. In
preparing the alloy a deoxidizing agent
is added, viz., phosphorus to 0.5 per
cent; magnesium to 1.5 per cent. The
phosphorus should always be added in
the form of phosphorous copper or phos-
phor aluminum of exactly determined
percentage. It is first added to the
copper, then the aluminum and the
nickel, and finally the magnesium, the
last named at the moment of liquidity,
are admixed.
III. — A gold bronze, containing 3 to
5 per cent aluminum; specific gravity.
8.37 to 8.15. Handsome golden color.
This alloy oxidizes less on heating than
copper and iron, and is therefore espe-
cially adapted for locomotive fireboxes
and spindles, etc.
IV. — A steel bronze containing on an
average 8.5 per cent aluminum (includ-
ing 1 per cent silicium); specific gravity,
7.7. Very ductile and tough, but slightly
elastic; hence its use is excluded where,
with large demands upon tension and
pressure, no permanent change of form
must ensue. This is changed by work-
ing, such as rolling, drawing, etc. Es-
ALLOYS
57
pecially useful where infrangibility is de-
sired, as in machinery, ordnance, etc.
At high temperature this bronze loses its
elasticity again.
V. — This contains 8.5 per cent alu-
minum and 1 A to 2 per cent silicium. Its
use is advisable in cases where the metal
is to possess a good elasticity, even in
the cast state, and to retain it after
being worked in red heat.
VI. — An acid bronze, containing 10
per cent aluminum; specific gravity,
7.65. Especially serviceable to resist
oxidation and the action of acids.
VII. — Diamond bronze, containing
10 per cent aluminum and 2 per cent
silicium. Specific gravity, 7.3. Very
hard; of great firmness, but brittle.
Art Bronzes. (See also Aluminum
Bronzes and Japanese Bronzes under
this title.) — I. — Copper, 84 parts; zinc,
11 parts; tin, 5 parts.
II. — Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 6 parts;
tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts.
III. — Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts;
tin, 5 parts.
IV. — Copper, 90 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc,
4 parts; lead, 1 part.
V. — Copper, 85 parts; zinc, 10 parts;
tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
VI. — Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 23 parts;
tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
Statuary Bronze. — Many of the an-
tique statues were made of genuine
bronze, which has advantages for this
purpose, but has been superseded in
modern times by mixtures of metals
containing, besides copper and tin — the
constituents of real bronze — a quantity
of zinc, the alloy thus formed being
really an intermediate product between
bronze and brass. The reason for the
use of such mixtures lies partly in the
comparative cheapness of their produc-
tion as compared with genuine bronze,
and partly in the purpose for which the
metal is to be used. A thoroughly good
statuary bronze must become thinly fluid
in fusing, fill the molds out sharply, allow
of being easily worked with the file, and
must take on the beautiful green coating
called patina, after being exposed to the
air for a short time.
Genuine bronze, however strongly
heated, does not become thin enough to
fill out the molds well, and it is also
difficult to obtain homogeneous castings
from it. Brass alone is also too thickly
fluid, and not hard enough for the re-
quired fine chiseling or chasing of the
finished object. Alloys containing zinc
and tin, in addition to copper, can be
prepared in such a manner that they will
become very thinly fluid, and will give
fine castings which can easily be worked
with the file and chisel. The best pro-
portions seem to be from 10 to 18 per
cent of zinc and from 2 to 4 per cent
of tin. In point of hardness, statuary
bronze holds an intermediate position
between genuine bronze and brass,
being harder and tougher than the latter,
but not so much so as the former.
Since statuary bronze is used prin-
cipally for artistic purposes, much de-
pends upon the color. This can be varied
from pale yellow to orange yellow by
slightly varying the content of tin or
zinc, which must, of course, still be kept
between the limits given above. Too
much tin makes the alloy brittle and dif-
ficult to chisel; with too much zinc, on
the other hand, the warm tone of color is
lost, and the bronze does not acquire a
fine patina.
The best proportions for statuary
bronze are very definitely known at the
present day; yet it sometimes happens
that large castings have not the right
character. They are either defective in
color, or they dc not take on a fine patina,
or they are difficult to chisel. These
phenomena may be due to the use of
impure metals — containing oxides, iron,
lead, etc. — or to improper treatment of
the alloy in melting. With the most
careful work possible, there is a consid-
erable loss in melting — 3 per cent at the
very least, and. sometimes as, much as 10.
This is due to the large proportion of
zinc, and it is evident that, in conse-
quence of it, the nature of the alloy will
be different from what might be expected
from the quantities of metals used in its
manufacture.
It has been remarked that slight vari-
ations in composition quickly change
the color of the alloy. The following
table gives a series of alloys of different
colors, suitable for statuary bronze:
Cop-
per
Zinc
Tin
Color
I..
84.42
11.28
4.30
Reddish yellow
II...
84.00
11.00
5.00
Orange red
III...
83.05
13.03
3.92
Orange red
IV...
83.00
12.005.00
Orange red
V...
81.05
15.32 3.63 Orange yellow
VI...
81.00
15.00
4.00 Orange yellow
VII...
78.09
18.47
3.44 Orange yellow
VIII...
73.58
23.273.15
Orange yellow
IX... 73.00
23.004.00
Pale orange
X...
70.36
26.882.76
Pale yellow
XI...
70.00
27.003.00
Pale yellow
XII... 65.95
31.56
2.49
Pale yellow
58
ALLOYS
Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze
metal is the alloy used in France for more
than a century. It contains 91.60 per
cent of copper, 5.33 per cent of zinc, 1.70
per cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead.
Somewhat more zinc is taken for articles
to be gilded.
Bismuth Bronze. — Copper, 52 parts;
nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts; lead, 5
parts; bismuth, 1 part. For metallic
mirrors, lamp reflectors, etc.
Gun Bronze. — See Phosphor Bronze
under this title.
Japanese Bronzes. — The formulas given
below contain a large percentage of lead,
which greatly improves the patina. The in-
gredients and the ratio of their parts for sev-
eral sorts of modern Japanese bronze follow:
I.— Copper, 81.62 per cent; tin, 4.61
per cent; lead, 10.21 per cent.
II.— Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38
per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent; zinc, 6.53
per cent.
III.— Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42
per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent; zinc, 3.20
per cent.
Sometimes a little antimony is added
just before casting, and such a composi-
tion would be represented more nearly
by this formula:
IV.— Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47
per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent; lead, 17.06
per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent.
For imitation Japanese bronze, see
Plating under Bronzing.
Machine Bronze. — I. — Copper, 89 per
cent; tin, 11 per cent.
II. — Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per
cent.
Phosphor Bronze. — Phosphor bronze
is bronze containing varying amounts
of phosphorus, from a few hundredths
of 1 per cent to 1 or 2 per cent. Bronze
containing simply copper and tin is very
liable to be defective from the presence
of oxygen, sulphur, or occluded gases.
Oxvgen causes the metal to be spongy
and weak. Sulphur and occluded gases
cause porosity. ^ Oxygen gets " into the
metal by absorption from the air. It can
be eliminated by adding to the metal
something which combines with the oxy-
gen and then fluxes off. Such deoxidizers
are zinc, antimony, aluminum, man-
ganese, silicon, and phosphorus. Sul-
phur and occluded gases can be elimi-
nated by melting the metal, exposing it to
the air, and letting it thus absorb some
oxygen, which then burns the sulphur
and gas. The oxygen can then be re-
moved by adding one of the above-
mentioned deoxidizers. The important
use of phosphorus in bronze is, there-
fore, to remove oxygen and also indirect-
ly to destroy occluded gas and sulphur.
A bronze is sometimes made with an
extra high percentage of phosphorus,
namely, 6 per cent. This alloy is made
so as to have phosphorus in convenient
form for use, and the process of manu-
facture is as follows: Ninety pounds
of copper are melted under charcoal in
a No. 70 crucible, which holds about
200 pounds of metal when full; 11
pounds of tin are added and the metal is
allowed to become hot. The crucible is
then removed from the furnace and 7
pounds of phosphorus are introduced
in the following manner: A 3-gallon
stone jar, half full of dilute solution
of blue vitriol, is weighed. Then the
weights are increased 7 pounds, and
phosphorus in sticks about 4 inches
long is added till the scales balance
again. The phosphorus is left in this
solution half an hour or longer, the phos-
phorus being given a coating of copper,
so that it may be dried and exposed to
the air without igniting. Have ready
a pan about 30 inches square and 6
inches deep, containing about 2 inches of
water. Over the water is a wire netting,
which is laid loose on ledges or supports
along the inner sides of the pan. On the
netting is blotting paper, and on this the
phosphorus is laid to dry when taken
out of the blue-vitriol solution.. The pan
also has a lid which can be put down in
case of ignition of the phosphorus.
The phosphorus is now ready for
introduction into the metal. This is
done by means of a cup-shaped instru-
ment called a retort or phosphorizer.
One man holds the retort on the rim of
the crucible in a horizontal position. A
second man takes about three pieces of
phosphorus and throws them into the
retort. The first man then immediately
plunges the mouth of the retort below
the surface of the metal before the phos-
phorus has a chance to fall or flow out.
Of course the phosphorus immediately
melts and also Tbegins to volatilize. As
the phosphorus comes in contact with
the metal, it combines with it. This
process is continued till all the 7 pounds
of phosphorus has been put into the metal.
The metal is then poured into slabs about
3 inches by 4 inches by 1 inch thick. The
metal is so hard that a greater thickness
would make it difficult to break it up.
When finished, the metal contains, by
analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When
phosphorus is to be added to metal, a
little of this hardener is employed. ^
Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its
melting point at about 2,000° F. Mol-
ALLOYS
ten copper has the marked property of
absorbing various gases. Jt is for this
reason that it is so difficult to make sound
castings of clear copper. Molten copper
combines readily with the oxygen of the
air, forming oxide of copper, which dis-
solves in the copper and mixes homo-
geneously with it.
A casting made from such metal would
be very spongy. The bad effect of oxy-
gen is intended to be overcome by adding
zinc to the extent of 1 per cent or more.
This result can be much more effectively
attained by the use of aluminum, man-
ganese, or phosphorus. The action of
these substances is to combine with the
oxygen, and as the product formed sepa-
rates and goes to the surface, the metal
is left in a sound condition. Aluminum
and manganese deoxidize copper and
bronze very effectively, and the oxide
formed goes to the surface as a scum.
When a casting is made from such metal,
the oxide or scum, instead of freeing it-
self from the casting perfectly, generally
remains in the top part of the casting
mixed with the metal, as a fractured
surface will show. Phosphorus deox-
idizes copper, and the oxide formed
leaves the metal in the form of a gas, so
that a casting made from such metal
shows a clean fracture throughout, al-
though the metal is not so dense as when
aluminum or manganese is used.
Copper also has the property of ab-
sorbing or occluding carbon monoxide.
But the carbonic oxide thus absorbed
is in a different condition from the oxy-
gen absorbed. When oxygen is ab-
sorbed by copper, the oxygen combines
chemically with the copper and loses its
own identity as a gas. But when coal
gas is absorbed by the copper, it keeps
its own physical identity and simply ex-
ists in the copper in a state of solution.
All natural waters, such as lake water,
river water, spring water, etc., contain
air in solution or occlusion. When such
water is cooled and frozen, just at the
time of changing from the liquid to the
solid state, the dissolved gas separates
and forms air bubbles, which remain
entangled in the ice. The carbonic
oxide which is dissolved or occluded in
copper acts in exactly the same way.
Hydrogen acts in exactly the same
manner as carbonic oxide. Sulphur also
has a bad effect upon copper and bronze.
Sulphur combines with copper and other
metals, forming sulphide of copper, etc.
When molten copper or bronze contain-
ing sulphur comes in contact with air it
absorbs some oxygen, and this in turn
combines with the sulphur present,
forming sulphur dioxide, which is a gas
which remains occluded in the metal.
Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at
440° F. Toward gases it acts something
like copper, but not in so marked a de-
gree. Although^copper and tin are both
soft, vet when mixed they make a harder
metal. When bronze cools from the
molten state, the copper and the copper-
tin alloy tend to crystallize by themselves.
The quicker the cooling occurs the less
separation will there be, and also the
fracture will be more homogeneous in ap-
pearance.
Gun bronze contains copper and tin
in the proportion of 9 or 10 parts of
copper to 1 of tin. This is the metal
used when an ordinary bronze casting
is wanted. A harder bronze is copper
and tin in the ratio of 6 to 1. This is
often used as a bearing metal. When
either of these metals is to be turned in
the machine shop, they should contain
about 3 per cent of lead, which will make
them work very much better, but it also
decreases their tensile strength. Bear-
ing metal now generally contains about
10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin
in varying ratios. The large percentage
of lead is put in that the metal may wear
away slower. Lead, although a metal
having properties similar to tin, acts en-
tirely different toward copper. Copper
and tin have a good deal of affinity fo?
each other, but copper and lead show
no attraction at all for each other. Cop-
per and tin mix in all proportions, but
copper and lead mix only to a very limit-
ed extent. About 3 per cent of lead can
be mixed with copper. With bronze
about 15 per cent to 20 per cent of lead
can be mixed. In bearing bronze the
lead keeps its own physical properties,
so that the constituent lead melts long
before the metal attains a red heat. It
sometimes happens when a bearing runs
warm that the lead actually sweats out
and forms pimples on the metal. Or,
sometimes, in remelting a bearing bronze
casting the lead may be seen to drop
out while the metal is warming up. All
of these metals, however, should contain
something to flux or deoxidize them,
such as zinc, manganese, aluminum,
silicon, antimony, or phosphorus.
The phosphor bronze bearing metal in
vogue has the following composition : Cop-
per, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead,
10 percent; and phosphorus, 0.3 per cent.
Melt 140 pounds of copper in a No.
70 pot, covering with charcoal. When
copper is all melted, add 17i pounds of
tin to 17i pounds of lead, and allow the
metal to become sufficiently warm, but
60
ALLOYS
not any hotter than is needed. Then
add 10 pounds of "hardener" (made as
previously described) and stir well. Re-
move from furnace, skim off the char-
coal, cool the metal with gates to as low
a temperature as is consistent with get-
ting a good casting, stir well again, and
pour. The molds for this kind of work
are faced with plumbago.
There are several firms that make
phosphor-bronze bearings with a com-
position similar to the above one, and
most of them, or perhaps all, make it by
melting the metals and then charging
with phosphorus to the extent of 0.7 to
1 per cent. But some metal from all
brands contains occluded gas. So that
after such metal is cast (in about two
minutes or so) the metal will ooze or
sweat out through the gate, and such a
casting will be found to be porous. But
not one such experience with metal made
as described above has yet been found.
This practical point should be heeded,
viz., that pig phosphor bronze should be
brought to the specifications that the
metal should have shrunk in the ingot
mold in cooling, as shown by the con-
cave surface of the upper side, and that
it should make a casting in a sand mold
without rising in the gate after being
poured.
In bearing metal, occluded gas is very
objectionable, because the gas, in trying
to free itself, shoves the very hard cop-
per-tin compound (which has a low
melting point and remains liquid after
the copper has begun to set) into spots,
and thus causes hard spots in the metal.
Phosphorus is very dangerous to han-
dle, and there is great risk from fire with
it, so that many would not care to handle
the phosphorus itself. But phosphor
copper containing 5 per cent of phos-
phorus, and phosphor tin containing 2 to
7 per cent of phosphorus, and several
other such alloys can be obtained in the
market. It may be suggested to those
who wish to make phosphor bronze, but
do not want to handle phosphorus itself,
to make it by using the proper amounts
of one of these high phosphorus alloys.
In using phosphorus it is only necessary
to use enough to thoroughly deoxidize
the metal, say 0.3 per cent. More than
this will make the metal harder, but not
any sounder.
Phosphor bronze is not a special kind
of alloy, but any bronze can be made
into phosphor bronze; it is, in fact, sim-
ply a -deoxidized bronze, produced under
treatment with phosphorus compounds.
Although the effect of phosphorus in
improving the quality of bronze has been
known for more than fifty years, it is only
of late that the mode for preparing phos-
phor bronze has been perfected. It is
now manufactured in many localities.
Besides its action in reducing the oxides
dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus
exerts another very material influence
upon the properties of the bronze. The
ordinary bronzes consist of mixtures in
which the copper is really the only crys-
tallized constituent, since the tin crys-
tallizes with great difficulty. As a con-
sequence of this dissimilarity in the na-
ture of the two metals, the alloy is not
so solid as it would be if both were crys-
tallized. The phosphorus causes the
tin to crystallize, and the result is a more
homogeneous mixture of the two metals.
If enough phosphorus is added, so
that its presence can be detected in the
finished bronze, the latter may be con-
sidered an alloy of crystallized phosphor
tin with copper. If the content of phos-
phor is still more increased, a part of the
copper combines with the phosphorus,
and the bronze then contains, besides
copper and tin, compounds of crystal-
lized copper phosphide with phosphide
of tin. The strength and tenacity of the
bronze are not lessened by a larger
amount of phosphorus, and its hardness
is considerably increased. Most phos-
phor bronzes are equal in this respect to
the best steel, and some even surpass it
in general properties.
The phosphorus is added to the bronze
in the form of copper phosphide or phos-
phide of tin, the two being sometimes
used together. They must be specially
prepared for this purpose, and the best
methods will be here given. Copper
phosphide is prepared by heating a mix-
ture of 4 parts of superphosphate of lime,
2 parts of granulated copper, and 1 part
of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at a
temperature not too high. The melted
copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent
of phosphorus, separates on the bottom
of the crucible.
Tin phosphide is prepared as follows:
Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solution
of tin chloride. The tin will be separated
in the form of a sponge-like mass. Col-
lect it, and put it into a crucible, upon
the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus
have been placed. Press the tin tightly
into the crucible, and expose to a gentle
heat. Continue the heating until flames
of burning phosphorus are no longer
observed on the crucible. The pure tin
phosphide, in the form of a coarsely
crystalline mass, tin-white in color, will
be found on the bottom of the crucible.
To prepare the phosphor bronze, the
ALLOYS
61
alloy to be treated is melted in the usual
way, and small pieces of the copper phos-
phide and tin phosphide are added.
Phosphor bronze, properly prepared,
has nearly the same melting point as that
of ordinary bronze. In cooling, how-
ever, it has the peculiarity of passing
directly from the liquid to the solid state,
without first becoming thickly fluid. In
a melted state it retains a perfectly bright
surface, while ordinary bronze in this
condition is always covered with a thin
film of oxide.
If phosphor bronze is kept for a long
time at the melting point, there is not
any loss of tin, but the amount of phos-
phorus is slightly diminished.
The most valuable properties of phos-
phor bronze are its extraordinary te-
nacity and strength. It can be rolled,
hammered, and stretched cold, and its
strength is nearly double that of the best
ordinary bronze. It is principally used
in cases where great strength and power
of resistance to outward influences are re-
quired, as, for instance, in objects which
are to be exposed to the action of sea water.
Phosphor bronze containing about 4
per cent of tin is excellently well adapted
for sheet bronze. With not more than 5
per cent of tin, it can be used, forged,
for firearms. Seven to 10 per cent of
tin gives the greatest hardness, and such
bronze is especially suited to the manu-
facture of axle bearings, cylinders for
steam fire engines, cogwheels, and, in
general, for parts of machines where
great strength and hardness are required.
Phosphor bronze, if exposed to the air,
soon becomes covered with a beautiful,
closely adhering patina, and is therefore
well adapted to purposes of art. The
amount of phosphorus added varies
from 0.25 to 2.5 per cent, according to
the purpose of the bronze. The com-
position of a number of kinds of phos-
phor bronze is given below:
Cop-
per
Tin
Zinc
Lead
Iron
Phos-
pho-
rus
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
85.55
77.85
72.50
73.50
74.50
83.50
90.34
90.86
94.71
9.85
4-15
4-15
11.00
8.00
6.00
11.00
8.00
8.90
8.56
4.39
3.77
8-20
7.65
17.00
19.00
11.00
3.00
0.62
4-15
4-15
trs.
0.05
0.5-3
.25-2
0.76
0.196
0.053
I for axle bearings, II and III for
harder and softer axle bearings, IV to
VIII for railroad purposes, IV especially
for valves of locomotives, V and VI axle
bearings for wagons, VII for connecting
rods, VIII for piston rods in hydraulic
presses.
Steel Bronze.— Copper, 60; ferro-
manganese (containing 70 to 80 per cent
manganese), 40; zinc, 15.
Silicon Bronze. — Silicon, similarly to
phosphorus, acts as a deoxidizing agent,
and the bronzes produced under its
influence are very ductile and elastic, do
not rust, and are very strong. On ac-
count of these qualities silicon bronze
is much used for telegraph and telephone
wires. The process of manufacture is
similar to that of phosphor bronze; the
silicon is used in the form of copper sili-
cide. Some good silicon bronzes are
as follows:
I II
Copper 97.12 97.37
Tin 1.14 1.32
Zinc l.io 1.27
Silicon 0.05 0.07
Sun Bronze.— The alloy called sun
bronze contains 10 parts of aluminum,
30 to 50 parts of copper, and 40 to 60
parts of cobalt. The mixture known by
the name of metalline has 25 per cent of
aluminum, 30 of copper, 10 of iron, and
35 of cobalt. These alloys melt at a point
approaching the melting point of copper,
are tenacious, ductile, and very hard.
Tobin Bronze.— This alloy is nearly
similar in composition and properties to
Delta metal.
II
59.00
38.40
2.16
0.11
0.31
III
61.20
37.14
0.90
0.18
0.35
IV
82.67
3.23
12.40
0.10
2.14
0.07
0.005
Copper. . . 61.203
Zinc 27.440
Tin 0.906
Iron 0.180
Lead 0.359
Silver
Phospho- )
rus $
The alloy marked IV is sometimes
called deoxidized bronze.
Violet-colored bronze is 50 parts cop-
per and 50 parts antimony.
CADMIUM ALLOYS:
See also Fusible Alloys.
Lipowitz's Alloy. — I. — This alloy is
composed of cadmium, 3 parts; tin, 4;
bismuth, 15; and lead, 8. The simplest
method of preparation is to heat the
metals, in small pieces, in a crucible,
stirring constantly, as soon as fusion
ALLOYS
begins, with a stick of hard wood. The
stirring is important, in order to prevent
the metals, whose specific gravity varies
considerably, from being deposited in
layers. The alloy softens at 140° F. and
melts completely at 158° P. The color
is silvery white, with a luster like polished
silver, and the metal can be bent, ham-
mered, and turned. These properties
would make it valuable for many pur-
poses where a beautiful appearance is of
special importance, but on account of
the considerable amount of cadmium
and bismuth which it contains, it is
rather expensive, and therefore limited
in use. Casts of small animals, insects,
lizards, etc., have been prepared from
it, which were equal in sharpness to
the best galvanoplastic work. Plaster of
Paris is poured over the animal to be
cast, and after sharp drying, the animal
is removed and the mold filled up with
Lipowitz's metal. The mold is placed
in a vessel of water, and by heating to
the boiling point the metal is melted and
deposited in the finest impressions of the
mold.
This alloy is most excellent for solder-
ing tin, lead, Britannia metal, and nickel,
being especially adapted to the last two
metals on account of its silver-white
color. But here again its costliness pre-
vents its general use, and cheaper alloys
possessing the same properties have been
sought. In cases where the silver-white
color and the low melting point are not
of the first importance, the alloys given
below may very well be used in the place
of it.
II. — Cadmium alloy (melting point,
170° P.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 3; lead,
11; bismuth, 16.
III. — Cadmium alloy (melting point,
167° F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3; lead,
8; bismuth, 8.
Cadmium alloys (melting point, 203°
P.):
IV V VI
Cadmium 1 1 1 parts
Tin 231"
Bismuth 35 2 "
VII. — A very fusible alloy, melting at
150° F., is composed of tin, 1 or 2 parts;
lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium,
1 or 2.
VIII.— Wood's alloy melts between
140° and 161.5° F. It is composed of
lead, 4 parts; tin, 2; bismuth, 5 to 8;
cadmium, 1 to 2. In color it resembles
platinum, and is malleable to a certain
extent.
IX. — Cadmium alloy (melting point,
179.5° F.): Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6
parts; bismuth, 7. This, like the pre-
ceding, can be used for soldering in hot
water.
X. — Cadmium alloy (melting point,
300° F.):8 Cadmiiim, 2 parts; tin, 4; lead,
2. This is an excellent soft solder, with a
melting point about 86 degrees below that
of lead and tin alone.
Cadmium Alloys with Gold, Silver, and
Copper.— I.— Gold, 750 parts; silver, 166
parts; cadmium, 84 parts. A malleable
and ductile alloy of green color.
II. — Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts;
and cadmium, 125 parts. Malleable and
ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue.
III. —Gold, 746 parts; silver, ^ 114
parts; copper, 97 parts; and cadmium,
43 parts. Likewise a malleable and
ductile alloy of a peculiar green shade.
All these alloys are suitable for plating.
As regards their production, each must
be carefully melted together from its
ingredients in a covered crucible lined
with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible.
Next, the alloy has to be remelted in a
graphite crucible with charcoal (or rosin
powder) and borax. If, in spite thereof,
a considerable portion of the cadmium
should have evaporated, the alloy must
be re-fused once more with an addition of
cadmium.
ALLOYS FOR CASTING COINS, ME-
DALLIONS, ETC.
Alloys which fulfill the requirements of
the medalist, and capable, therefore, of
reproducing all details, are the following:
I II
Tin 3 6 parts
Lead 13 8 "
Bismuth 6 14 "
III. — A soft alloy suitable to take im-
pressions of woodcuts, coins, metals, en-
gravings, etc., and which must melt at
a low degree of heat, is made out of bis-
muth, 3 parts; tin, li parts; lead, 2^
parts; and worn-out type, 1 part.
Acid-proof Alloy. — This alloy is char-
acterized by its power, of resisting the
action of acids, and is therefore especially
adapted to making cocks, pipes, etc.,
which are to come in contact with acid
fluids. It is composed of copper, zinc,
lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt, and an-
timony, in the following proportions:
Copper 74.75 parts
Zinc 0.61 "
Lead 16.35 "
Tin 0.91 "
Iron 0.43 "
Nickel ) 0 24 "
Cobalt f °'24
Antimony 6.78 "
ALLOYS
63
Albata Metal. — Copper, 40 parts; zinc,
32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts.
Alfenide Metal. — Copper, 60 parts;
zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron.
Bath Metal.— This" alloy is used es-
pecially in England for the manufacture
of teapots, and is very popular owing to
the fine white color it possesses. It
takes a ^ high polish, and articles made
from this alloy acquire in the course of
time, upon only being rubbed with a
white cloth, a permanent silver luster.
The composition of Bath metal is cop-
per, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts*
Baudoin Metal. — This is composed of
72 parts of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of
cobalt, 1 of zinc; J per cent of aluminum
may be added.
CASTING COPPER :
Macht's Yellow Metal.— I. —This alloy
consists of 33 parts of copper and 25 of
zinc. It has a dark golden-yellow color,
great tenacity, and can be forged at a
red heat, properties which make it es-
pecially suitable for fine castings.
II. — Yellow. — Copper, 67 to 70 parts;
zinc, 33 to 30 parts.
III.— Red.— Copper, 82 parts; zinc,
18 parts.
Copper Arsenic. — Arsenic imparts to
copper a very fine white color, and makes
it very hard and brittle. Before Ger-
man silver was known, these alloys were
sometimes used for the manufacture of
such cast articles as were not to come in
contact with iron. When exposed to the
air, they soon lose their whiteness and
take on a brownish shade. On account
of this, as well as the poisonous character
of tne arsenic, they are very little used
at the present time. Alloys of copper
and arsenic are best prepared by pressing
firmly into a crucible a mixture of 70
parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the
copper to be used in the form of fine
shavings) and fusing this mixture in a
furnace with a good draught, under a
cover of glass.
Copper Iron. — The alloys of copper
and iron are little used in the industries
of the present day, but it would seem
that in earlier times they were frequently
prepared for the purpose of giving a con-
siderable degree of hardness to copper;
for in antique casts, consisting princi-
pally of copper, we regularly find large
quantities of iron, which leads to the sup-
position that they were added intention-
ally.
These alloys, when of a certain com-
position, have considerable strength and
hardness. With an increase in the quan-
tity of "the iron the hardness increases,
but the solidity is lessened. A copper
and iron alloy of considerable strength,
and at .the same time very hard, is
made of copper, 66 parts; iron, 34.
These alloys acquire, on exposure to air,
an ugly color inclining toward black,
and are therefore not adapted for arti-
cles of art.
Copper Nickel.— A. Morrell, of New
York, has obtained a patent on a nickel-
copper alloy which he claims is valu-
able on account of its noncorrosive
qualities, therefore making it desirable
for ships, boiler tubes, and other uses
where the metal comes much in contact
with water. The process of making the
metal is by smelting ore containing sul-
phide of nickel and copper, and besem-
erizing the resultant matter. This is
calcined in order to obtain the nickel
and copper in the form of oxides. The
latter are reduced in reverberating fur-
nace with carbon, or the like, so as to
produce an alloy which preferably con-
tains 2 parts of nickel and 1 part of
copper.
Delta Metal. — An alloy widely used for
making parts of machinery, and also
for artistic purposes, is the so-called
Delta metal. This is a variety of brass
hardened with iron; some manufacturers
add small quantities of tin and lead;
also, in some cases, nickel. The follow-
ing analysis of Delta metal (from the fac-
tory at Diisseldorf) will show its usual
composition:
I
II
III
IV
V
Copper. . . .
Zinc
55.94
41.61
0.72
0.87
0.81
tra-
ces.
0.013
55.80
40.07
1.82
1.28
0.96
tra-
ces.
0.011
55.82
41.41
0.76
0.86
1.38
0.06
tra-
ces.
54.22
42.25
1.10
0.99
1.09
0.16
0.02
58.6:
38.95
0.67
1.62
b'.ii
Lead
Iron. . . .
Manganese
Nickel
Phosphorus
I is cast, II hammered, III rolled,
and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta
metal is produced by heating zinc very
strongly in crucibles (to about 1600° F.),
and adding ferromanganese or "spiegel-
eisen," producing an alloy of 95 per cent
zinc and 5 per cent of iron. Copper and
brass and a very small amount of copper
phosphate are also added.
ALLOYS
Gong Metal. — A sonorous metal for
cymbals, gongs, and tam-tams consists
of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin.
Ignite the piece after it is cast and plunge
it into cold water immediately.
Production of Minargent. — This alloy
consists of copper, 500 parts; nickel,
350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The
metal obtained possesses a handsome
white color and greatly resembles silver.
Minofor. — The so-called Minofor metal
is composed of copper, tin, antimony, zinc,
and iron in the following proportions:
I II
Copper 3.26 4
Tin 67.53 66
Antimony 17.00 20
Zinc 8.94 9
Iron 1
Minargent and Minofor are sometimes
used in England for purposes in which the
ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and
1 part antimony, might equally well be
employed; the latter surpasses both of
them in beauty of color, but they are, on
the other hand, harder.
Retz Alloy. — This alloy, which resists
the corrosive action of alkalies and acids,
is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.34
of tin, 1.82 of lead, and 1 of antimony.
It can be utilized in the manufacture of
receivers, for which porcelain and ebo-
nite are usually employed.
Ruoltz Metal. — This comprises 20
parts of silver, 50 of copper, 30 of nickel.
These proportions may, however, vary.
Tissier's Metal. — This alloy contains
arsenic, is of a beautiful tombac red
color, and very hard. Its composition
varies a great deal, but the peculiar alloy
which gives the name is composed of
copper, 97 parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic,
1 or 2. It may be considered a brass
with a very high percentage of copper,
and hardened by the addition of arsenic.
It is sometimes used for axle bearings,
but other alloys are equally suitable for
this purpose, and are to be preferred on
account of the absence of arsenic, which
is always dangerous.
FILE ALLOYS. — Many copper-tin al-
loys are employed for the making of files
which, in distinction from the steel files,
are designated composition files. Such
alloys have the following compositions:
Geneva Composition Files. —
I II
Copper 64.4 62
Tin 18.0 20
Zinc 10.0 10
Lead 7.6 8
VogePs Composition Files. —
III IV V
Copper 57.0 61.5 73.0
Tin 28.5 31.0 19.0
Zinc 78.0 .... 8,0
Lead 7.0 8.5 8.0
VI. — Another alloy for composition
files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2; zinc, l,and
lead, 1 — fused under a cover of borax.
EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC AL-
LOYS.
(These have a fusing point usually
below 300° F.)
(See also Solders.)
I. Rose's Alloy. — Bismuth, 2 parts;
lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Melting point,
200° F.
II. Darcet Alloy. — This is composed of
8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin.
It melts at 176° F. To impart greater
fusibility, -fo part of mercury is added;
the fusing is then lowered to 149° F.
III.— Newton alloy melt3 at 212° F.,
and is composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 2
of lead, and 3 of tin.
IV.— Wood's Metal.—
Tin 2 parts
Lead 4 parts
Bismuth 5 to 8 parts
This silvery, fine-grained alloy fuses
between 151° and 162° F., and is ex-
cellently adapted to soldering.
V. — Bismuth, 7 parts; lead, 6 parts;
cadmium, 1 part. Melting point, 180° F.
VI.— Bismuth, 7 to 8 parts; lead, 4;
tin, 2; cadmium, 1 to 2. Melting point,
149° to 160° F.
Other easily fusible alloys :
VII VIII
1 2
1 2
1 1
258° F. 283°
IX
3
3
1
311°
Lead
Tin
Bismuth
Melting Point. . .
Fusible Alloys for Electric Installa-
tions.— These alloys are employed in
electric installations as current inter-
rupters. Serving as conductors on a
short length of circuit, they melt as soon
as the current becomes too strong. Fol-
lowing is the composition of some of
these alloys.
Fusing
temper-
ature
Lead
Tin
Bis-
muth
Cad-
mium
I..
203° F.
250
500
500
II...
193° F.
397
532
71
III...
168° F.
344
94
500
62
IV...
153° F.
260| 148
522
70
V...
150° F.
249
142
501
108
VI...
145° F.
267
136
500
100
ALLOYS
65
These alloys are prepared by melting
the lead in a stearine bath and adding
successively, and during the cooling,
first, the cadmium; second, the bismuth;
third, the tin. It is absolutely necessary
to proceed in this manner, since these
metals fuse at temperatures ranging
from 850° F. (for lead), to 551° F. (for
tin).
Fusible Safety Alloys for Steam
Boilers.—
Bis-
muth
Lead
Zinc
Melting
point
Atmos.
pres-
sure
L.
8
5
3
212° F.
1
II
8
8
4
235° F
1 5
III
8
8
3
253° F
2
IV. .
8
10
8
266° F
2 5
V
8
12
8
270° F.
3
VI
8
16
14
280° F.
3.5>
VII
8
16
12
285° F.
4
VIII
8
22
24
309° F.
5
IX
8
32
36
320° F.
6
X
8
32
28
330° F.
7
XI
8
30
24
340° F.
8
Lipowitz Metal. — This amalgam is pre-
pared as follows: Melt in a dish, cad-
mium, 3 parts, by weight; tin, 4 parts;
bismuth, 15 parts; and lead, 8 parts,
adding to the alloy, while still in fusion,
2 parts of quicksilver previously heated
to about 212° F. The amalgamation
proceeds easily and smoothly. The
liquid mass in the dish, which should
be taken from the fire immediately upon
the introduction of the mercury, is stirred
until the contents solidify. While Lipo-
witz alloy softens already at 140° F. and
fuses perfectly at 158°, the amalgam has
a still lower fusing point, which lies
around 143|° F.
This amalgam is excellently adapted
for the production of impressions of
various objects of nature, direct im-
pressions of leaves, and other delicate
parts of plants having been made with its
aid which, in point of sharpness, are
equal to the best plaster casts and have
a very pleasing appearance. The amal-
gam has a silver- white color and a
fine gloss. It is perfectly constant
to atmospheric influences. This amal-
gam has also been used with good suc-
cess for the making of small statuettes
and busts, which are hollow and can be
readily gilt or bronzed by electro-depo-
sition. The production of small statues
is successfully carried out by making a
hollow gypsum mold of the articles to
be cast and heating the mold evenly to
about 140° F. A corresponding quan-
tity of the molten amalgam is then poured
in and the mold moved rapidly to and
fro, so that the alloy is thrown against the
sides all over. The shaking should be
continued until it is certain that the amal-
gam has solidified. When the mold
has cooled off it is taken apart and
the seams removed by means of a sharp
knife. If the operation is carried on
correctly, a chasing of the cast mass be-
comes unnecessary, since the alloy fills
out the finest depressions of the mold
with the greatest sharpness.
Amalgam for Plaster. — Tin, 1 part;
bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 1 part. Melt
the bismuth and the tin together, and
when the two metals are in fusion add
the mercury while stirring. For use,
rub up the amalgam with a little white of
egg and brush like a varnish on the
plaster articles.
Plastic Metal Composition. — I. Copper
oxide is reduced by means of hydrogen
or copper sulphate by boiling a solution
of the same in water with some zinc filings
in order to obtain entirely pure copper.
Of the copper powder obtained in this man-
ner, 20, 30, or 36 parts, by weight, accord-
ing to the degree of hardness desired for
the composition (the greater the quantity
of copper used the harder will the composi-
tion become), are thoroughly moistened
in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with
sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity;
70 parts, by weight, of mercury are then
added to this paste, the whole being con-
stantly stirred. When all the copper
has been thoroughly amalgamated with
the mercury, the sulphuric acid is washed
out again with boiling water, and in 12
hours after it has become cold the com-
position will be so hard that it can be
polished. It is impervious to the action
of dilute acids, alcohol, ether, and boil-
ing water. It contains the same specific
gravity, alike in the soft or the hard con-
dition. When used as a cement, it can
at any time be rendered soft and plastic
in the following manner: If applied
while hot and plastic to the deoxidized
surfaces of two pieces of metal, these
latter will unite so firmly that in about 10
or 12 hours the metal may be subjected
to any mechanical process. The prop-
erties of this composition render it
very useful for various purposes, and it
forms a most effective cement for fine
metal articles which cannot be soldered
in fire.
II. — Bismuth, 5.5 parts; lead, 3; tin,
1.5.
III. Alloy d'Homburg. — Bismuth,
66
ALLOYS
3 parts; lead, 3; tin, 3. This alloy is
fusible at 251° F., and is of a silvery
white. It is employed for reproductions
of medals.
IV. Alloy Valentine Rose.— Bismuth,
4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 to 3 parts.
This alloy fuses at 212° to 250° F.
V. Alloy Rose pere. — Bismuth, 2
parts; lead, 2; tin, 2. This alloy fuses
at 199° F.
The remainder are plastic alloys for
reproducing cuts, medals, coins, etc.:
VI. — Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts;
tin, 1 part.
VII. — Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts;
tin, 2 parts.
VIII. — Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts;
tin, 2 parts.
IX. — Bismuth, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts;
tin, 3 parts.
X. — Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts;
tin, 2 parts.
Quick -Water. — That the amalgam
may easily take hold of bronze objects
and remain there, it is customary to
coyer the perfectly cleansed and shining
article with a thin coat of mercury, which
is usually accomplished by dipping it into
a so-called quick-water bath.
In the form of minute globules the
mercury immediately separates itself
from the solution and clings to the bronze
object, which thereupon presents the
appearance of being plated with silver.
After it has been well rinsed in clean
water, the amalgam may be evenly and
without difficulty applied with the
scratch brush.
This quick- water (in reality a solution
of mercurous nitrate), is made in the sim-
plest manner by taking 10 parts of mer-
cury and pouring over it 11 parts of
nitric acid of a specific gravity equal to
1.33; now let it stand until every part
of the mercury is dissolved; then, while
stirring vigorously, add 540 parts of
water. This solution must be kept in
closed flasks or bottles to prevent im-
purities, such as dust, etc., from falling
into it.
The preparatory work on the object
to be gilded consists mainly in cleansing
it from every trace of oxidation. First,
it must be well annealed by placing it in
a bed of glowing coal, care being exer-
cised that the heating be uniform.
When cooled, this piece is plunged into
a highly diluted sulphuric-acid bath in
order to dissolve in a measure the oxide.
Next it is dipped in a 36° nitric-acid bath,
of a specific gravity equal to 1.33, and
brushed off with a long brush; it is now
dipped into nitric acid into which a little
lampblack and table salt have been
thrown. It is now ready for washing
in clean water and drying in unsoiled
sawdust. It is of the greatest importance
that the surface to be gilded should ap-
pear of a pale yellow tint all over. If it
be too smooth the gold will not take hold
easily, and if it be too dull it will require
too much gold to cover it.
GOLD ALLOYS:
Colored Gold Alloys.— The alloys of
gold with copper have a reddish tinge;
those of gold with silver are whiter, and
an alloy of gold, silver, and copper to-
gether is distinguished by a greenish
tone. Manufacturers of gold ware
make use of these different colors, one
piece being frequently composed of
several pieces of varying color. Below
are given some of these alloys, with their
colors:
Gold
Silver
Copper
Steel
Cad-
mium
I..
2.6
1.0
II..
75.0
16.6
8.4
III..
74.6
11.4
9.7
4.3
IV..
75.0
12.6
12.5
V.
1.0
2 0
VI..
4.0
3.0
1.0
VII..
14.7
7.0
6.0
....
....
VIII..
14.7
9.0
4.0
IX..
3.0
1.0
1.0
X..
10.0
1.0
4.0
XI..
1.0
1.0
XII..
1.0
2.0
XIII..
30.0
3.6
....
2.6
XIV..
4.0
....
1.0
XV.
29.0
11.0
XVI
1 3
1 0
Nos. I, II, III, and IV are green gold;
No. Vis pale yellow; Nos. VI, VII, and
VIII bright yellow; Nos. IX and X pale
red; Nos. XI and XII bright red; Nos.
XIII, XIV, and XV gray; while No.
XVI exhibits a bluish tint. The finished
gold ware, before being put upon the
market, is subjected to a special treat-
ment, consisting either in the simple
pickling or in the so-called coloring,
which operation is conducted especially
with alloys of low degree of fineness, the
object being to give the layers a super-
ficial layer of pure gold.
The presence of silver considerably
modifies the color of gold, and the jewel-
er makes use of this property to obtain
alloys of various shades. The following
proportions are to be observed, viz.:
ALLOYS
67
Gold Silver Copper
Color of Gold per per per
1,000 1,000 1,000
I. Green 750 250 . . .
II. Dead leaves.. .. 700 300 ...
III. Sea green GOO 400 ...
IV. Pink 750 200 50
V. English yellow.. 750 125 125
VI. English white. .. 750 150 100
VII. Whiter 750 170 80
VIII. Less white 750 190 60
IX. Red 750 ... 250
Other colored gold alloys are the fol-
lowing:
X. Blue. — Fine gold, 75; iron, 25.
XI. Dark Gray. — Fine gold, 94;
iron, 6.
XII. Pale Gray. — Fine gold, 191;
iron, 9.
XIII. Cassel Yellow. — Fine gold, 75;
fine silver, 12A; rose copper, 12^.
The above figures are understood to
be by weight.
The gold solders, known in France
under the names of soudures au quart
(13 i carat), au tiers (12 carat), and au
deux (9 carai), are composed of 3, 2, or
1 part of gold respectively, with 1 part of
an alloy consisting of two-thirds silver and
one-third copper. Gold also forms with
aluminum a series of alloys of greatly vary-
ing coloration, the most curious of them,
composed of 22 parts of aluminum for 88
parts of gold, possessing a pretty purple
shade. But all these alloys, of a highly
crystalline base, are very brittle and can-
not be worked, for which reason their
handsome colorings have not yet been
capable of being utilized.
Enameling Alloys. — I. Transparent.
—This alloy should possess the property
of transmitting rays of light so as to give
the highest possible effect to the enamel.
The alloy of gold for transparent green
should be pale; a red or copper alloy
does not do for green enamel, the copper
has a tendency to darken the color and
thus take away a part of its brilliancy.
The following alloy for transparent
green possesses about the nearest print,
in color, to the enamel — which should
represent, as near as possible, the color
and brilliancy of the emerald — that can
be arrived at:
ozs. dwts. grs.
Fine gold 0 18 8
Fine silver 0 1 6
Fine copper 0 0 10
No borax must be used in the melting
of this alloy, it being of a more fusible
nature than the ordinary alloy, and will
not take so high a heat in enameling.
II. Fed Enamel. — The enamel which
forms this color being of a higher fusing
point, if proper care be not taken, the
gold will melt first, and the work become
ruined. In the preparation of red enam-
el, the coloring matter is usually an oxide
of gold, and this so raises the tempera-
ture at which it melts that, in order to
prevent any mishap, the gold to be enam-
eled on should be what is called a 22-
carat red, that is, it should contain a
preponderance of copper in the alloying
mixture so as to raise the fusing point of
the gold. The formula is:
ozs. dwts. grs.
Fine gold 0 18 8
Fine silver 0 0 10
Fine copper 0 1 6
Gold-leaf Alloys. — All gold made into
leaf is more or less alloyed. The gold
used by the goldbeater is alloyed ac-
cording to the variety of color required.
Fine gold is commonly supposed to be in-
capable of being reduced to thin leaves.
This, however, is not the case, although
its use for ordinary purposes is unde-
sirable on account of its greater cost. It
also adheres by contact of one leaf with
another, thus causing spoiled material
and wasted labor; but for work exposed
to the weather it is much preferable, as
it is more durable and does not tarnish
or change color.
The following is a list of the principal
classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily
prepared by beaters with the proportion
of alloy they contain:
Gold Silver Copper
grs. grs. grs.
I. Red gold... 456-460 ... 20-24
II. Pale red. .. 464 ... 16
III. Extra deep. 456 12 12
IV. Deep 444 24 12
V. Citron 440 30 10
VI. Yellow 408 72
VII. Pale yellow 384 96
VIII. Lemon.. .. 360 120
IX. Green or pale 312 168 ....
X. White 240 240 ....
Gold-Plate Alloys.— Gold, 92 parts;
copper, 8 parts.
II. — Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts.
III. — Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 parts.
IMITATION GOLD.
I. — One hundred parts, by weight, of
copper of the purest quality; 14 of zinc
or tin; 6 of magnesia; | of sal ammoniac,
limestone, and cream of tartar. The
copper is first melted, then the magnesia,
sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of
tartar in powder are added separately
and gradually. The whole mass is kept
stirred for a half hour, the zinc or tin
being dropped in piece by piece, the stir-
68
ALLOYS
ring being kept up till they melt. Fi-
nally the crucible is covered and the mass
is kept in fusion 35 minutes and, the same
being removed, the metal is poured into
molds, and is then ready for use. The
alloy thus made is said to be fine-grained,
malleable, takes a high polish, and does
not easily oxidize.
II. — An invention, patented in Ger-
many, covers a metallic alloy, to take
the place of gold, which, even if exposed
for some time to the action of ammonia-
cal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or
lose its gold color. It can be rolled and
worked Tike gold and has the appearance
of genuine gold without containing the
slightest admixture of that metal. The
alloy consists of copper and antimony in
the approximate ratio of 100 to 6, and is
produced by adding to molten copper,
as soon as it has reached a certain degree
of heat, the said percentage of antimony.
When the antimony has likewise melted
and entered into intimate union with the
copper, some charcoal ashes, magne-
sium, and lime spar are added to the mass
when the latter is still in the crucible.
III. Aluminum Gold. — This alloy,
called Nuremberg gold, is used for mak-
ing cheap gold ware, and is excellent for
this purpose, as its color is exactly that of
pure gold, and does not change in the air.
Articles made of Nuremberg gold need
no gilding, and retain their color under
the hardest usage; even the fracture of
this alloy shows the pure gold color. The
composition is usually 90 parts of cop-
per, 2.5 of gold, and 7.5 of aluminum.
IV. — Imitation gold, capable of being
worked and drawn into wire, consists of
950 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to
5 of silver.
V. — Chrysochalk is similar in com-
position to Mannheim gold:
I II
Copper 90.5 58.68
Zinc 7.9 40.22
Lead 1.6 1.90
In color it resembles gold, but quickly
loses its beauty if exposed to the air, on
account of the oxidation of the copper.
It can, however, be kept bright for a long
time by a coating of colorless varnish,
which excludes the air and prevents
oxidation. Chrysochalk is used for
most of the ordinary imitations of gold.
Cheap watch chains and jewelry are
manufactured from it, and it is widely
used by the manufacturers of imitation
bronze ornaments.
Mannheim Gold or Similor. — Mann-
heim gold is composed of copper, zinc,
and tin, in proportions about as follows:
I II
Copper 83.7 89.8
Zinc 9.3 9.9
Tin 7.0 0.6
It has a fine yellow color, and was
formerly much used in making buttons
and pressed articles resembling gold.
Later alloys, however, surpass it in color,
and it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
One variety of Mannheim gold, so
called, contains 1.40 parts of brass
(composition 3 Cu2 1 Zn) to 10 of copper
and 0.1 of zinc.
Mosaic Gold. — This is an alloy com-
posed— with slight deviations — of 100
parts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc. It
has a beautiful color, closely resembling
that of gold, and is distinguished by a
very fine grain, which makes it especially
suitable for the manufacture of castings
which are afterwards to be gilded. The
best method of obtaining a thoroughly
homogeneous mixture of the two metals
is first to put into the crucible one-half
of the zinc to be used, place the cover
upon it, and fuse the mixture under a
cover of borax at as low a temperature
as possible. Have ready the other half
of the zinc, cut into small pieces and
heated almost to melting, and when the
contents of the crucible are liquid throw
it in, a small portion at a time, stirring
constantly to effect as intimate a mixture
of the metals as possible.
Oreiide or Oroide (French Gold).— The
so-called French gold, when polished, so
closely resembles genuine gold in color
that it can scarcely be distinguished from
it. Besides its beautiful color, it has the
valuable properties of being very ductile
and tenacious, so that it can easily be
stamped into any desired shape; it also
takes a high polish. It is frequently
used for the manufacture of spoons,
forks, etc., but is unsuitable for this pur-
pose on account of the large amount of
copper contained in it, rendering it in-
jurious to health. The directions for
preparing this alloy vary greatly. The
products of some Paris factories show
the following composition:
I II III
Copper 90 80.5 86.21
Zinc 10 14.5 31.52
Tin 0.48
Iron 0.24
A special receipt for orei'de is the fol-
lowing:
IV. — Melt 100 parts of copper and
add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of
magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of
j lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir again
ALLOYS
thoroughly, and add 17 parts of granu-
lated zinc, and after mixing it with the
copper by vigorous stirring keep the
alloy liquid for one hour. Then care-
fully remove the scum and pour off the
alloy.
Pinchbeck. — This was first manufac-
tured in England. Its dark gold color
is the best imitation of gold alloyed with
copper. Being very ductile, it can easily
be rolled out into thin plates, which can
be given any desired shape by stamping.
It does not readily oxidize, and thus
fulfills all the requirements for making
cheap jewelry, which is its principal use.
Copper 88.8 93.6
Zinc 11.2 6.4
Or
Copper 2.1 1.28
Zinc 0.7
Brass 1.0 0.7
Palladium. Gold. — Alloys of gold, cop-
per, silver, and palladium have a brown-
ish-red color and are nearly as hard as iron.
They are sometimes (although rarely)
used for the bearings for the axles of the
wheels of fine watches, as they invite little
friction and do not rust in the air. The
composition used in the Swiss and Eng-
lish watch factories consists usually of
gold 18 parts, copper 13 parts, silver 11,
and palladium 6.
Talmi Gold. — The name of talmi gold
was first applied to articles of jewelry,
chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brought
from Paris, and distinguished by beau-
tiful workmanship, a low price, and
great durability. Later, when this al-
loy had acquired a considerable reputa-
tion, articles were introduced under the
same name, but which were really made
of other metals, and which retained their
beautiful gold color only as long as they
were not used. The fine varieties of talmi
gold are manufactured from brass, cop-
per, or tombac, covered with a thin plate
of gold, combined with the base by roll-
ing, under strong pressure. The plates
are then rolled out by passing through
rollers, and the coating not only acquires
considerable density, but adheres so
closely to the base that the metal will
keep its beautiful appearance for years.
Of late, many articles of talmi gold
have been introduced whose gold coat-
ing is produced by electroplating, and
is in many cases so thin that hard
rubbing will bring through the color of
the base. Such articles, of course, are
not durable. In genuine talmi gold, the
coating, even though it may be thin, ad-
heres very closely to the base, for the rea-
son that the two metals are actually
welded by the rolling, and also because
alloyed gold is always used, which is
much harder than pure gold. The pure
gold of electroplating is very soft. The
composition of some varieties of talmi
gold are here given. It will be seen that
the content of gold varies greatly, and
the durability of the alloy will, of course,
correspond to this. The alloys I, II, III
are genuine Paris talmi gold; IV, V, and
VI are electroplated imitations; and
VII is an alloy of a wrong composition,
to which the gold does not adhere firmly:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
j
1
Copper
89.9
90.8
90.0
90.7
88.2
87.5
83.1
93.5
84.5
86.0
Zinc
9.3
8.3
8.9
89.0 i
11.4
12.4 i
17.0 '
6.6 '
15.8
12.0
Tin Iron
Gold
1.3
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.05
1.1 0.3
Japanese Alloys. — In Japan some
specialties in metallic alloys are in use of
which the composition is as follows:
Shadke consists of copper with from 1 to
10 per cent of gold. Articles made from
this alloy are laid in a pickle of blue
vitriol, alum, and verdigris, until they
acquire a bluish-black color.
Gui-shi-bu-ichi is an alloy of copper
containing 30 to 50 per cent of silver. It
possesses a peculiar gray shade.
Mokume consists of several composi-
tions. Thus, about 30 gold foils (gen-
uine) are welded together with shadke,
copper, silver, and gui-shi-bu-ichi and
pierced. The pierced holes are, after
firmly hammering together the plates,
filled up with the above-named pickle.
The finest Japanese brass consists of
10 parts copper and 8 parts zinc, and is
called siachu. The bell metal kara kane
is composed of copper 10 parts, tin 10
parts, iron 0.5 part, and zinc 1.5 parts.
The copper is first fused, then tne re-
maining metals are added in rotation.
GERMAN SILVER OR ARGENTAN.
The composition of this alloy varies
considerably, but from the adjoined fig-
ures an average may be found, whicn
will represent, approximately, the normal
composition:
Copper 50 to 66 parts
Zinc 19 to 31 parts
Nickel 13 to 18 parts
The properties of the different kinds,
such as their color, ductility, fusibility,
70
ALLOYS
etc., vary with the proportions of the
single metals. For making spoons, forks,
cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable
proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of
zinc, and 25 of nickel. This metal has
a beautiful blue-white color, and does
not tarnish easily.
German silver is sometimes so brittle
that a spoon, if allowed to fall upon the
floor, will break; this, of course, indicates
faulty composition. But the following
table will snow how the character of the
alloy changes with the varying percent-
age of the metals composing it:
Copper
Zinc
Nickel
Quality
I.
8
3.5
4
Finest quality.
II.
8
3.5
6
Beautiful, but
refractory.
III.
8
6.5
3
Ordinary,
readily fus-
ible.
IV.
V.
52
59
26.0
30.0
22
11
First quality.
Second quality.
VI.
63
31.0
6
Third quality.
The following analyses give further
particulars in regard to different kinds
of German silver:
For sheet
Cop-
per
Zinc
Nickel
Lead
Iron
(French) ....
50.0
31.3
18.7
(French) ....
50.0
30.0
20.0
(French) ....
58.3
25.0
16.7
Vienna
50.0
25.0
25.0
Vienna
55.6
22.0
22.0
Vienna
60.0
20.0
20.0
Berlin
54.0
28.0
18.0
Berlin
55.5
29.1
17.5
English
63.34
17.01
19.13
.
.
English
62.40
22.15
15.05
.
. . .
English
62.63
26.05
10.85
. . .
. . .
English
57.40
25.
13.0
.
3.0
Chinese
26.3
36.8
36.8
Chinese
43.8
40.6
15.6
Chinese
45.7
36.9
17.9
Chinese
40.4
25.4
31.6
2.6
Castings J48.5
24.3
24.3
2.9
. .
Castings
54.5
21.8
21.8
1.9
.
Castings
58.3
19.4
19.4
2.9
'. '. '.
Castings
Castings
57.8
57.
27.1
20.0
14.3
20.0
0.8
3.0
In some kinds of German silver are
found varying quantities of iron, man-
ganese, tin, and very frequently lead,
added for the purpose of changing the
properties of the alloy or cheapening the
cost of production. But all these metals
have a detrimental rather than a bene-
ficial effect upon the general character of
the alloy, and especially lessen its power
of resistance to the action of dilute acids,
one of its most valuable properties.
Lead makes it more fusible; tin acts
somewhat as in bronze, making it denser
and more resonant, and enabling it to
take a higher polish. With iron or man-
ganese the alloy is whiter, but it be-
comes at the same time more refractory
a-nd its tendency toward brittleness is
increased.
SUBSTITUTES FOR GERMAN SIL-
VER.
There are many formulas for alloys
which claim to be substitutes for Ger-
man silver; but no one of them has yet
become an article of general commerce.
It will be sufficient to note these ma-
terials briefly, giving the composition of
the most important.
Nickel Bronze. — This is prepared by
fusing together very highly purified
nickel (99.5 per cent) with copper, tin,
arid zinc. A bronze is produced contain-
ing 20 per cent of nickel, light-colored
and very hard.
Bismuth Bronze. —
I II III IV
Copper 25.0 45.0 69.0 47.0
Nickel 24.0 32.5 10.0 30.9
Antimony 50.0
Bismuth 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1
Tin 16.0 15.0 1.0
Zinc 21.5 20.0 21.0
Aluminum 1.0 ...
I is hard and very lustrous, suitable
for lamp reflectors and axle bearings; II
is hard, resonant, and not affected by
sea water, for parts of ships, pipes, tele-
graph wires, and piano strings; III and
IV are for cups, spoons, etc.
Manganese Argentan. —
Copper 52 to 50 parts
Nickel 17 to 15 "
Zinc 5 to 10 • "
Manganese 1 to 5 "
Copper, with 15 per
cent phosphorus . 3 to 5 **
Readily cast for objects of art.
Aphtite.—
Iron 66 parts
Nickel 23 "
Tungsten 4 **
Copper 5
Arguzoid. —
Copper 55 . 78 parts
Zinc 23.198 "
Nickel 13.406 "
Tin 4.035 "
Lead 3.544 "
Silver white, almost ductile, suited for
artistic purposes.
ALLOYS
71
Ferro - Argentan. —
Copper 70 . 0 parts
Nickel 20.0 «
Zinc 5.5 "
Cadmium 4.5 "
Resembles silver; worked like German
silver.
Silver Bronze. — Manganese, 18 per
cent; aluminum, 1.2 per cent; silicium,
5 per cent; zinc, 13 per cent; copper, 67.5
per cent. The electric resistance of sil-
ver bronze is greater than that of Ger-
man silver, hence it ought to be highly
suitable for rheostats.
Instrument Alloys. — The following
are suitable for physical and optical in-
struments, metallic mirrors, telescopes,
etc.:
I. — Copper, 62 parts; tin, 33 parts;
lead, 5 parts.
II. — Copper, 80; antimony, 11 ; lead, 9.
III.— Copper, 10; tin, 10; antimony,
10; lead, 4C.
IV.— Copper, 30; tin, 50; silver, 2;
arsenic, 1.
V.— Copper, 66; tin, 33.
VI.— Copper, 64; tin, 26.
VII.— Steel, 90'; nickel, 10.
VIII.— Platinum, 60; copper, 40.
IX.— Platinum, 45; steel, 55.
X. — Platinum, 55; iron, 45.
XI.— Platinum, 15; steel, 85.
XII. — Platinum, 20; copper, 79; ar-
senic, 1.
XIII.— Platinum, 62; iron, 28; gold,
10.
XIV.— Gold, 48; zinc, 52.
XV.— Steel, 50; rhodium, 50.
XVI.— Platinum, 12; iridium, 88.
XVII.— Copper, 89.5; tin, 8,5; zinc, 2.
LEAD ALLOYS.
The following alloys, principally lead,
are used for various purposes:
Bibra Alloy.— This contains 8 parts of
bismuth, 9 of tin, and 38 to 40 of lead.
Metallic Coffins.— Tin, 40 parts; lead,
45 parts; copper, 15 parts.
Plates for Engraving.— I.— Lead, 84
parts; antimony, 16 parts.
II. — Lead, 86 parts; antimony, 14
parts.
III. — Lead, 87 parts; antimony, 12
parts; copper, 1 part.
IV.— Lead, 81 parts; antimony, 14
parts; tin, 5 parts.
V.— Lead, 73 parts; antimony, 17
parts; zinc, 10 parts.
VI.— Tin, 53 parts; lead, 43 parts;
antimony, 4 parts.
Hard lead is made of lead, 84 parts;
antimony, 16 parts.
Sheet Metal Alloy.—
Tin 35 parts
Lead 250 parts
Copper 2.5 parts
Zinc 0.5 part
This alloy has a fine white color, and
can be readily rolled into thin sheets.
For that reason it is well adapted for
lining tea chests and for the production
of tobacco and chocolate wrappers. The
copper and zinc are used in the form
of fine shavings. The alloy should be
immediately cast into thin plates, which
can then be passed through rolls.
MAGNETIC ALLOYS.
Alloys which can be magnetized most
strongly are composed of copper, man-
ganese, and aluminum, the quantities of
manganese and aluminum being pro-
portional to their atomic weights (55.0 to
27.1, or about 2 to 1). The maximum
magnetization increases rapidly with
increase of manganese, but alloys con-
taining much manganese are exceedingly
brittle and cannot be wrought. The
highest practicable proportion of man-
ganese at present is 24 per cent.
These magnetic alloys were studied by
Hensler, Haupt, and Starck, and Gum-
lich has recently examined them at the
Physikalisch - technische Reichsanstalt,
with very remarkable and interesting re-
sults.
The two alloys examined were com-
posed as follows:
Alloy I. — Copper, 61.5 per cent; man-
ganese, 23.5 per cent; aluminum, 15 per
cent; lead, 0.1 per cent, with traces of iron
and silicon.
Alloy II. — Copper, 67.7 per cent;
manganese, 20.5 per cent; aluminum,
10.7 per cent; lead, 1.2 per cent, with
traces of iron and silicon.
Alloy II could be worked without dif-
ficulty, but alloy I was so brittle that it
broke under the hammer. A bar 7 inches
long and I inch thick was obtained by
grinding. This broke in two during the
measurements, but, fortunately, without
invalidating them. Such a material is
evidently unsuited to practical uses.
The behavior of magnetic alloys at
high temperatures is very peculiar. Al-
loy I is indifferent to temperature chan-
ges, which scarcely affect its magnetic
properties, but the behavior of alloy II is
very different. Prolonged heating to 230°
F. produces a great increase in its capa-
bility of magnetization, which, after 544
hours' heating, rises from 1.9 to 3.2 kilo-
ALLOYS
fauss, approaching the strength of alloy
. But when alloy II is heated to 329°
F., its capability of magnetization fails
again and the material suffers permanent
injury, which can be partly, but not
wholly, cured by prolonged heating.
Another singular phenomenon was
exhibited by both of these alloys. When
a bar of iron is magnetized by an electric
current, it acquires its full magnetic
strength almost instantaneously on the
closure of the circuit. The magnetic
alloys, on the contrary, do not attain
their full magnetization for several min-
utes. In some of the experiments a
gradual increase was observed even after
the current had been flowing five minutes.
In magnetic strength alloy I proved
far superior to alloy II, which con-
tained smaller proportions of manga-
nese and aluminum. Alloy I showed
magnetic strengths up to 4.5 kilogauss,
while the highest magnetization ob-
tained with alloy II was only 1.9 kilo-
gauss. But even alloy II may be called
strongly magnetic, for its maximum mag-
netization is about one-tenth that of good
wrought iron (18 to 20 kilogauss), or
one-sixth that of cast iron (10 to 12
kilogauss). Alloy I is nearly equal in
magnetic properties to nickel, which can
be magnetized up to about 5 kilogauss.
MANGANESE ALLOYS :
Manganese bronze is a bronze de-
prived of its oxide by an admixture of
manganese. The manganese is used as
copper manganese containing 10 to 30
per cent manganese and added to the
bronze to the amount of 0.5 to 2 per cent.
Manganese Copper. — The alloys of
copper with manganese have a beauti-
ful silvery color, considerable ductility,
great hardness and tenacity, and 'are
more readily fusible than ordinary
bronze. A special characteristic is that
they exactly fill out the molds, with-
out the formation of blowholes, and pre-
sent no difficulties in casting.
Cupromanganese is suitable for many
purposes for which nothing else but
bronze can advantageously be used, and
the cost of its production is no greater
than that of genuine bronze. In pre-
paring the alloy, the copper is used in the
form of fine grains, obtained by pouring
melted copper into cold water. These
copper grains are mixed with the dry
oxide of manganese, and the mixture put
into a crucible holding about 66 pounds.
Enough space must be left in the cruci-
ble to allow a thick cover of charcoal,
as the manganese oxidizes easily. The
crucible is placed in a well-drawing
wind furnace and subjected to a strong
white heat. The oxide of manganese is
completely reduced to manganese, which
at once combines with the copper to form
an alloy. In order to prevent, as far as
possible, the access of air to the fusing
mass, it is advisable to cover the crucible
with a lid which has an aperture in the
center for the escape of the carbonic
oxide formed during the reduction.
When the reduction is complete and
the metals fused, the lid is removed and
the contents of the crucible stirred with
an iron rod, in order to make the alloy
as homogeneous as possible. By re-
peated remelting of the cupromanganese
a considerable quantity of the man-
ganese is reconverted into oxide; it is,
therefore, advisable to make the casts
directly from the crucible. When poured
out, the alloy rapidly solidifies, and re-
sembles in appearance good German
silver. Another reason for avoiding re-
melting is that the crucible is strongly
attacked by the cupromanganese, and
can be used but a few times.
The best kinds of cupromanganese
contain between 10 and 30 per cent of
manganese. They have a beautiful
white color, are hard, tougher than cop-
per, and can be worked under the ham-
mer or with rolls. Some varieties of
cupromanganese which are especially
valuable for technical purposes are given
below:
I II III IV
Copper 75 60 65 60
Manganese. 25 25 20 20
Zinc 15 5 ..
Tin 10
Nickel 10 10
Manganin. — This is an alloy of copper,
nickel, and manganese for electric re-
sistances.
MIRROR ALLOYS :
Amalgams for Mirrors. — I. — Tin, 70
parts; mercury, 30 parts.
II. — For curved mirrors. Tin, 1 part;
lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 9
parts.
III.— For glass balls. Tin, 80 parts;
mercury, 20 parts.
IV. — Metallic cement. Copper, 30
parts; mercury, 70 parts.
V. — Mirror metal. — Copper, 100 parts;
tin, 50 parts; Chinese copper, 8 parts;
lead, 1 part; antimony, I part.
Reflector Metals. — I. — (Cooper's.)
Copper, 35 parts; platinum, 6; zinc, 2;
tin, 16.5; arsenic, 1. On account of the
hardness of this alloy, it takes a very
high polish; it is impervious to the effects
of the weather, and is therefore remark-
ALLOYS
ably well adapted to the manufacture
of mirrors for fine optical instruments.
II. — (Duppler's.) Zinc, 20 parts; sil-
ver, 80 parts.
III.— Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11
parts; arsenic, 0.67 part.
IV. — Copper, 64 parts; tin, 32 parts;
arsenic, 4 parts.
V.— Copper, 82.18 parts; lead, 9.22
parts; antimony, 8.60 parts.
VI. — (Little's.) Copper, 69.01 parts;
tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44 parts; arsenic,
1.83 parts.
Speculum Metal. — Alloys consisting
of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin can
be very brilliantly polished, and will
serve for mirrors. Good speculum metal
should have a very fine-grained fracture,
should be white and very hard, the high-
est degree of polish depending upon these
qualities. A composition to meet these
requirements must contain at least 35 to
36 per cent of copper. Attempts have
frequently been made to increase the
hardness of speculum metal by additions
of nickel, antimony, and arsenic. With
the exception of nickel, these substances
have the effect of causing the metal to
lose its high luster easily, any consid-
erable quantity of arsenic in particular
having this effect.
The real speculum metal seems to be
a combination of the formula Cu4Sn,
composed of copper 68.21 per cent, tin
31.7. An alloy of this nature is some-
times separated from ordnance bronze
by incorrect treatment, causing the so-
called tin spots; but this has not the pure
white color which distinguishes the spec-
ulum metal containing 31.5 per cent of tin.
By increasing the percentage of copper
the color gradually shades into yellow;
with a larger amount of tin into blue. It
is dangerous to increase the tin too much,
as this changes the other properties of the
alloy, and it becomes too brittle to be
worked. Below is a table showing differ-
ent compositions of speculum metal. The
standard alloy is undoubtedly the best.
Arse- Sil-
Copper Tin Zinc nic ver
Standard
alloy 68.21 31.7
Otto's
alloy 68.5 31.5
Richard-
son's alloy 65.3 30.0 0.7 2. 2.
Sollit's al-
loy 64.6 31.3 4.1 Nickel
Chinese
speculum
metal. .. 80.83 . ... 8.5 Anti-
OldRoman 63.39 19.05
mony
17.29 Lead
PALLADIUM ALLOYS.
I. — An alloy of palladium 24 parts,
gold 80, is white, hard as steel, unchange-
able in the air, and can, like the other
alloys of palladium, be used for dental
purposes.
II.— Palladium 6 parts, gold 18, sil-
ver 11, and copper 13, gives a reddish-
brown, hard, and very fine-grained
alloy, suitable for the bearings of pivots
in clock works.
The alloys of most of the other plati-
num metals, so called, are little used on
account of their rarity and costliness.
Iridium and rhodium give great hardness
to steel, but the commercial rhodium
and iridium steel, so called, frequently
contains not a trace of either. The alloy
of iridium with osmium has great hard-
ness and resistance and is recommended
for pivots, fine instruments, and points
of ship compasses.
Palladium Silver. — This alloy, com-
posed of 9 parts of palladium and 1 of
silver, is used almost exclusively for den-
tal purposes, and is well suited to the
manufacture of artificial teeth, as it does
not oxidize. An alloy even more fre-
quently used than this consists of plati-
num 10 parts, palladium 8, and gold 6.
Palladium Bearing Metal. — This alloy
is extremely hard, and is used instead of
jewel bearings in watches. It is com-
posed of palladium 24 parts, gold 72,
silver 44, copper 92.
PLATINUM ALLOYS.
Platinum has usually been alloyed
with silver in goldsmith's work, 2 parts
silver to 1 of platinum being taken to
form the favorite "platinum silver."
The object has been to produce an alloy
having a white appearance, which can be
polished, and at the same time has a
low melting point. In addition to this
Elatinum alloy the following are well
nown:
I. — A mixture of 7 parts platinum with
3 parts iridium. This gives to platinum
the hardness of steel, which can be still
further increased by taking 4 parts of
iridium.
II. — An alloy of 9 parts platinum and
1 part iridium is used by the French in
the manufacture of measuring instru-
ments of great resisting power.
Compounds of copper, nickel, cad-
mium, and tungsten are also used in the
construction of parts of watches; the lat-
ter acquire considerable hardness with-
out becoming magnetic or rusting like
steel.
III. — For this purpose a compound of
ALLOYS
62.75 parts platinum, 18 parts copper,
1.25 parts cadmium, and 18 parts nickel
is much recommended.
IV. — Very ductile platinum -copper
alloys have also been made, e. g., the so-
called Cooper gold, consisting of 3 parts
platinum and 13 parts copper, which is
almost equal to 18-carat gold in regard
to color, finish, and ductility. If 4 per
cent of platinum is taken, these latter
alloys acquire a rose-red color, while a
golden-yellow color can be produced by
further adding from 1 to 2 per cent (in
all 5 to 6 per cent) of platinum. The
last-named alloy is extensively used for
ornaments, likewise alloy V.
V. — ^?en parts platinum, 60 parts
nickel, and 220 parts brass, or 2 parts
platinum, 1 part nickel and silver re-
spectively, 2 parts brass, and 5 parts
copper; this also gives a golden-yellow
color.
VI. — Fqr table utensils a favorite alloy
is composed of 1 part platinum, 100 parts
nickel, and 10 parts tin. Articles made
of the latter alloy are impervious to at-
mospheric action and keep their polish
for a long time. Pure white platinum
alloys have for some time been used in
dental work, and they have also proved
serviceable for jewelry.
VII. — A mixture of 30 parts platinum,
10 parts gold, and 3 parts silver, or 7
parts platinum, 2 parts gold, and 3 parts
silver.
VIII. — For enameled articles: Plati-
num, 35 parts; silver, 65 parts. First
fuse the silver, then add the platinum
in the spongy form. A good solder for
this is platinum 80 parts, copper 20
parts.
IX. — For pens: Platinum, 4 parts;
silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part.
Platinum Gold. — Small quantities of
platinum change the characteristics of
gold in many respects. With a small
percentage the color is noticeably lighter
than that of pure gold, and the alloys are
extremely elastic; alloys containing more
than 20 per cent of platinum, however,
almost entirely lose their elasticity. The
melting point of the platinum-gold alloy
is high, and alloys containing 70 per cent
of platinum can be fused only in the
flame of oxyhydrogen gas, like platinum
itself. Alloys with a smaller percentage
of platinum can be prepared in furnaces,
but require the strongest white heat.
In order to avoid the chance of an im-
perfect alloy from too low a temperature,
it is always safer to fuse them with the
oxyhydrogen flame. The alloys of plat-
inum and gold have a somewhat lim-
ited application. Those which contain
from 5 to 10 per cent of platinum are
used for sheet and wire in the manu-
facture of artificial teeth.
Platinum-Gold Alloys for Dental Pur-
poses.—
I II III
Platinum 6 14 10
Gold 246
Silver 1 6
Palladium .... 8
Platinum Silver. — An addition of plat-
inum to silver makes it harder, but also
more brittle, and changes the white color
to gray. An alloy which contains only
a very small percentage of platinum is
noticeably darker in color than pure
silver. Such alloys are prepared under
the name of platine au titre, containing
between 17 and 35 per cent of plati-
num. They are almost exclusively used
for dental purposes.
Imitation Platinum. — I. — Brass, 100
parts; zinc, 65 parts.
II. — Brass, 120 parts; zinc, 75 parts.
III. — Copper, 5 parts; nickel, 4 parts;
zinc, li parts; antimony, 1 part; lead, 1
part; iron, 1 part; tin, 1 part.
Cooper's Pen Metal.— This alloy is
especially well adapted to the manufac-
ture of pens, on account of its great hard-
ness, elasticity, and power of resistance
to atmospheric influences, and would
certainly have superseded steel if it were
possible to produce it more cheaply than
is the case. The compositions most fre-
quently used for pen metal are copper
1 part, platinum 4, and silver 3; or,
copper 21, platinum 50, and silver 36.
Pens have been manufactured, con-
sisting of several sections, each of a dif-
ferent alloy, suited to the special purpose
of the part. Thus, for instance, the
sides of the pen are made of the elastic
composition just described; the upper
part is of an alloy of silver and platinum;
and the point is made either of minute cut
rubies or of an extremely hard alloy of
osmium and iridium, joined to the body
of the pen by melting in the flame of
the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. The price of
such pens, made of expensive materials
and at the cost of great labor, is of course
exceedingly high, but their excellent
qualities repay the extra expense. They
are not in the least affected by any kind
of ink, are most durable, and can be used
constantly for years without showing any
signs of wear.
The great hardness and resistance to
the atmosphere of Cooper's alloys make
them very suitable for manufacturing;
ALLOYS
mathematical instruments where great
precision is required. It can scarcely
be calculated how long a chronometer,
for instance, whose wheels are construct-
ed of this alloy, will run before showing
any irregularities due to wear. In the
construction of such instruments, the
price of the material is not to be taken
into account, since the cost of the labor
in their manufacture so far exceeds this.
PEWTER.
This is an alloy of tin and lead only,
or of tin with antimony and copper.
The first is properly called pewter.
Three varieties are known in trade:
I (Plate Pewter).— From tin, 79 per
cent; antimony, 7 per cent; bismuth and
copper, of each 2 per cent; fused to-
gether. Used to make plates, teapots,
etc. Takes a fine polish.
II (Triple Pewter).— From tin, 79
per cent; antimony, 15 per cent; lead,
6 per cent; as the last. Used for msxior
articles, syringes, toys, etc.
III (Ley Pewter). — From tin, 80
per cent; lead, 20 per cent. Used for
measures, inkstands, etc.
According to the report of a P^rench
commission, pewter containing more
than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is
unsafe for measures for wine and similar
liquors, and, indeed, for any other uten-
sils exposed to contact with food or
beverages. The legal specific gravity
of pewter in France is 7.764; if it be
greater, it contains an excess of lead,
and is liable to prove poisonous. The
proportions of these metals may be ap-
proximately determined from the specific
gravity; but correctly only by an assay
for the purpose.
SILVER ALLOYS :
Aluminum Silver. — Aluminum and
silver form beautiful white alloys which
are considerably harder than pure alu-
minum, and take a very high polish. They
have the advantage over copper alloys
of being unchanged by exposure to the
air, and of retaining their white color.
The properties of aluminum and silver
alloys vary considerably according to
the percentage of aluminum.
I. — An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum
and 5 parts of silver is very similar to
pure aluminum, but is harder and takes
a finer polish.
II. — One hundred and sixty-nine parts
of aluminum and 5 of silver make an
elastic alloy, recommended for watch
springs and dessert knives.
III. — An alloy of equal parts of silver
and aluminum is as hard as bronze.
IV. — Five parts of aluminum and 1
part of silver make an alloy that is eas-
ily worked.
V. — Also aluminum, 3 parts, and sil-
ver, 1 part.
VI. Tiers -Argent. —This alloy is pre-
pared chiefly in Paris, and used for the
manufacture of various utensils. As in-
dicated by its name (one-third silver),
it consists of 33.33 parts of silver and
66.66 parts of aluminum. Its advan-
tages over silver consist in its lower price
and greater hardness; it can also be
stamped and engraved more easily than
the alloys of copper and silver.
VII. — This is a hard alloy which has
been found very useful for the operating
levers of certain machines, such as the
spacing lever of a typewriter. The metal
now generally used for this purpose by
the various typewriter companies is "alu-
minum silver," or "silver metal." The
proportions are given as follows:
Copper 57 . 00
Nickel 20 . 00
Zinc.. 20.00
Aluminum 3.00
This alloy when used on typewriting
machines is nickel-plated for the sake of
the first appearance, but so far as corro-
sion is concerned, nickeling is unneces-
sary. The alloy is stiff and strong and
cannot be bent to any extent without
breaking, especially if the percentage of
aluminum is increased to 3.5 per cent;
it casts free from pinholes and blow»
holes; the liquid metal completely fills
the mold, giving sharp, clean castings,
true to pattern; its cost is not greater
than brass; its color is silver white,
and its hardness makes it susceptible to
a high polish.
Arsenic. — Alloys which contain small
quantities of arsenic are very ductile,
have a beautiful white color, and were
formerly used in England in the man-
ufacture of tableware. They are not,
however, suitable for this purpose, on
account of the poisonous character of
the arsenic. They are composed usually
of 49 parts of silver, 49 of copper, and 2
of arsenic.
China Silver. — Copper, 65.24 per cent;
tin, 19.52 per cent; nickel, 13.00 per cent;
silver, 2.05 per cent.
Copper -Silver. — When silver is alloyed
with copper only one proportion is known
which will give a uniform casting. The
proportion is 72 per cent silver to 28 per
cent copper. With more silver than 72
per cent the center of a cast bar will be
ALLOYS
richer than the outside, which chills
first; while with a less percentage than
72 per cent the center of the bar will be
poorer and the outside richer than the
average. This characteristic of silver-
copper alloys is known to metallurgists
as "segregation."
When nickel is added to the silver and
copper, several good alloys may be
formed, as the following French com-
positions:
I II III
Silver 33 40 20
Copper. . . . 37-42 30-40 45-55
Nickel 25-30 20-30 25-35
The whitening of alloys of silver and
copper is best accomplished by anneal-
ing the alloy until it turns black on the
surface. Cool in a mixture of 20 parts, by
weight, of concentrated sulphuric acid to
1,000 parts of distilled water and leave
therein for some time. In place of the
sulphuric acid, 40 parts of potassium
bisulphate may be used per 1,000 parts
of liquid. Repeat the process if neces-
sary.
Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys.
— Cadmium added to silver alloys gives
great flexibility and ductility, without
affecting the white color; these proper-
ties are valuable in the manufacture of
silver-plated ware and wire. The pro-
portions of the metals vary in these al-
loys. Some of the most important vari-
eties are given below.
Silver Copper Cadmium
1 980 15 5
II 950 15 35
III 900 18 82
IV 860 20 180
V 666 25 309
VI 667 50 284
VII 500 50 450
In preparing these alloys, the great
volatility of cadmium must be taken
into account. It is customary to pre-
pare first the alloy of silver and copper,
and add the cadmium, which, as in the
case of the alloys of silver and zinc, must
be wrapped in paper. After putting it
in, the mass is quickly stirred, and the
alloy poured immediately into the molds.
This is the surest way to prevent the
volatilization of the cadmium.
Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys.
— These alloys, from the metals con-
tained in them, may be characterized as
argentan or German silver with a cer-
tain percentage of silver. They have
been used for making small coins, as in
the older coins of Switzerland. Being
quite hard, they have the advantage of
wearing well, but soon lose their beau-
tiful white color and take on a disagree-
able shade of yellow, like poor brass.
The silver contained in them can be
regained only by a laborious process,
which is a great drawback to their use
in coinage. The composition of the
Swiss fractional coins is as follows:
20 cen- 10 cen- 5 cen-
times times times
Silver 15 10 5
Copper 50 55 , 60
Nickel.... 25 25 25
Zinc 10 10 10
Mousset's Alloy.— Copper, 59.06; sil-
ver, 27.56; zinc, 9.57; nickel, 3.42. This
alloy is yellowish with a reddish tinge,
but white on the fractured surface. It
ranks next after Argent- Ruolz, which
also contains sometimes certain quanti-
ties of zinc, and in this case may be
classed together with the alloy just de-
scribed. The following alloys can be
rolled into sheet or drawn into wire:
Silver 33.3
Copper 41.8
Nickel 8.6
Zinc.. . 16.3
II
34
42
8
16
III
40.0
44.6
4.6
10.8
Japanese (Gray) Silver. — An alloy is
prepared in Japan which consists of
equal parts of copper and silver, and
which is given a beautiful gray color by
boiling in a solution of alum, to which
copper sulphate and verdigris are added.
The so-called "mokum," also a Japanese
alloy, is prepared by placing thin plates
of gold, silver, copper, and the alloy just
described over each other and stretch-
ing them under the hammer. The cross
sections of the thin plates obtained in
this way show the colors of the different
metals, which give them a peculiar
striped appearance. Mokum is prin-
cipally used for decorations upon gold
and silver articles.
Silver-Zinc. — Silver and zinc have
great affinity for each other, and alloys
of these two metals are therefore easily
made. The required quantity of zinc,
wrapped in paper, is thrown into the
melted and strongly heated silver, the
mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron
rod, and at once poured out into molds.
Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained
which are both ductile and flexible. An
alloy consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1
of silver closely resembles silver in color,
and is quite ductile. With a larger pro-
portion of zinc the alloy becomes brittle.
In preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger
quantity of zinc must be taken than the
ALLOYS
77
finished alloy is intended to contain, as a
small amount always volatilizes.
Imitation Silver Alloys. — There are a
number of alloys, composed of different
metals, which resemble silver, and may
be briefly mentioned here.
I. — Warne's metal is composed of tin
10 parts, bismuth 7, and cobalt 3. It
is white, fine-grained, but quite difficult
to fuse.
II. — Tonca's metal contains coppei 5
parts, nickel 4, tin 1, lead 1, iron 1,
zinc 1, antimony 1. It is hard, difficult
to fuse, not very ductile, and cannot be
recommended.
III. — Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5,
nickel 5.5, antimony 5, bismuth 5.
IV. — Tourun-Leonard's metal is com-
posed of 500 parts of tin and 64 of bell
metal.
V. — Silveroid is an alloy of copper,
nickel, tin, zinc, and lead.
VI.— Minargent. Copper, 100 parts;
nickel, 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts; alu-
minum, 1 part.
VII. — Nickel, 23 parts; aluminum,
5 parts; copper, 5 parts; iron, 65 parts;
tungsten, 4 parts.
VIII.— Argasoid. Tin, 4.035; lead,
3.544; copper, 55.780; nickel, 13.406;
zinc, 23.198; iron, trace.
SOLDERS :
See Solders.
STEEL ALLOYS:
See also Steel.
For Locomotive Cylinders. — This mix-
ture consists of 20 per cent steel castings,
old steel, springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2
coke iron, and 60 per cent scrap. From
this it is stated a good solid metal can be
obtained, the castings being free from
honeycombing, and finishing better than
the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which
it has the advantage of 24 per cent great-
er strength. Its constituents are: Sili-
con, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus,
0.65; sulphur, 0.068; combined carbon,
0.62; graphite, 2.45.
Nickel steel is composed of nickel 36
per cent, steel 64 per cent.
Tungsten steel is crucible steel with
5 to 12 per cent tungsten.
STEREOTYPE METAL.
> Lead 2 parts
Tin 3 parts
Bismuth 5 parts
The melting point of this alloy is 196°
F. The alloy is rather costly because
of the amount of bismuth which it
contains. The following mixtures are
cheaper:
Tin ........
Lead .......
Bismuth ____
Antimony
I II III
131
1 5 1.5
283
IV
2
2
5
1
TIN ALLOYS:
Alloys for Dentists' Molds and Dies.
—I. — Very hard. Tin, 16 parts; anti-
mony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part.
II.— Softer than the former. Tin, 8
parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part.
III. — Very hard. Tin, 12 parts; an-
timony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.
Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness
of Zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part;
cadmium, 1 part.
Tin-Lead. — Tin is one of those metals
which is not at all susceptible to the
action of acids, while lead, on the other
hand, is very easily attacked by them.
In such alloys, consequently, used for
cooking utensils, the amount of lead
must be limited, and should properly not
exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but cases have
been known in which the so-called tin con-
tained a third part, by weight, of lead.
Alloys containing from 10 to 15 per
cent of lead have a beautiful white color,
are considerably harder than pure tin,
and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin
and lead are very lustrous, and are used
for stage jewelry and mirrors for reflect-
ing the light of lamps, etc. An especially
brilliant alloy is called "Fahlun bril-
liants." It is used for stage jewelry, and
consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead.
It is poured into molds faceted in the
same way as diamonds, and when seen
by artificial light, the effect is that of dia-
monds. Other alloys of tin and lead are
employed in the manufacture of toys.
These must fill the molds well, and
must also be cheap, and therefore as
much as 50 per cent of lead is used.
Toys can also be made from type metal,
which is even cheaper than the alloys
of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage
of readily breaking if the articles are
sharply bent. The alloys of tin and
lead give very good castings, if sharp iron
or brass molds are used.
Lead ............... 19 parts
Tin ................ 29 parts
This alloy is very bright and possesses
a permanent sheen. It is well adapted
for the making of artificial gems for
stage use. It is customary in carrying
out the process to start with two parts of
tin and one part of lead. Tin is added
until a sample drop which is allowed to
fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror.
The artificial gems are produced by
78
ALLOYS
dipping into the molten alloy pieces of
glass cut to the proper shape. The tin
coating of metal which adheres to the
glass cools rapidly and adheres tena-
ciously. Outwardly these artificial gems
appear rough and gray, but inwardly they
are highly reflective and quite deceptive
when seen in artificial light.
If the reflective surfaces be coated
with red, blue, or green aniline, various
colored effects can be obtained. In-
stead of fragile glass the gems may be
produced by means of well-polished
pieces of steel or bronze.
Other Tin-Lead Alloys. — Percentage
of lead and specific gravity.
P.O. S.G. P.O. S. G.
0 7.290 28 8.105
1 7.316 29 8.137
2 7.342 30 8.169
3 7.369 31 8.202
4 7.396 32 8.235
5 7.423 33 8.268
6 7.450 34 8.302
7 7.477 35 8.336
8 7.505 36 8.379
9 7.533 37 8.405
10 7.562 38 8.440
11 7.590 39 8.476
12 7.619 40 8.512
13 7.648 41 8.548
14 7.677 42 8.584
15 7.706 43 8.621
16 7.735 44 8.658
17 7.764 45 8.695
18 7.794 46 8.732
19 7.824 47 8.770
20 7.854 48 8.808
21 7.885 49 8.846
22 7.916 50 8.884
23 7.947 60 9.299
24 7.978 70 9.736
25 8.009 80 10.225
26 8.041 90 10.767
27 8.073 100 11.370
Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc.—
I.— Tin 4 parts
Lead 3 parts
This is a very soft solder which sharp-
ly reproduces all details.
Another easily fusible alloy but some-
what harder, is the following:
II.— Tin 8 parts
Lead 6 parts
Antimony 0.5 part
Miscellaneous Tin Alloys. — I. — Alger
Metal. — Tin, 90 parts; antimony, 10
parts. This alloy is suitable as a protector.
II. Argentine Metal. — Tin, 85.5 per cent;
antimony, 14.5 per cent.
III. — Ashberry metal is composed of
78 to 82 parts of tin, 16 to 20 of antimony,
2 to 3 of copper.
IV. Quen's Metal.— Tin, 9 parts; lead,
1 part; antimony, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part.
Type Metal. — An alloy which is to
serve for type metal must be readily
cast, fill out the molds sharply, and
be as hard as possible. It is difficult to
satisfy all these requirements, but an
alloy of antimony and lead answers the
purpose best. At the present day there
are a great many formulas for type
metal in which other metals besides
lead and antimony are used, either to
make the alloy more readily fusible, as
in the case of additions of bismuth, or
to give it greater power of resistance,
the latter being of especial importance
for types that are subjected to constant
use. Copper and iron have been rec-
ommended for this purpose, but the
fusibility of the alloys is greatly im-
paired by these, and the manufacture of
the types is consequently more difficult
than with an alloy of lead and antimony
alone. In the following table some al-
loys suitable for casting type are given:
T_OJ Anti- Cop- Bis- y. rr.- Nick-
Lead mony per muth Zmc Tm el
I 3 1 .. ..
II 5 1
III 10 1
IV 10 2 .. 1
V 70 18 2 .. .. 10 ..
VI 60 20 .... . . 20
VII 55 25 20 ..
VIII 55 30 15 ..
IX 100 30 8 2 .. 20 8
X 6 .. 4 .. 90 ....
The French and English types contain
a certain amount of tin, as shown by the
following analyses:
English Types ' Drench
I II III
Lead 69.2 61.3 55.0 55
Antimony... 19.5 18.8 22.7 30
Tin 9.1 20.2 22.1 15
Copper 1.7
Ledebur gives the composition of type
metal as follows:
I II III IV
Lead 75 60 80 82
Antimony... 23 25 20 14.8
Tin 22 15 .. 3.2
WATCHMAKERS' ALLOYS:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
WHITE METALS.
The so-called white metals are em-
ployed almost exclusively for bearings.
(See Anti-friction Metals under Alloys.)
In the technology of mechanics an ac-
curate distinction is made between the
different kinds of metals for bearings;
and they may be classed in two groups,
red brass and white metal. The red-
ALLOYS
79
brass bearings are characterized by great
hardness and power of resistance, and
are principally used for bearings of heav-
ily loaded and rapidly revolving axles.
For the axles of large and heavy fly-
wheels, revolving at great speed, bearings
of red brass are preferable to white metal,
though more expensive.
In recent years many machinists have
found it advantageous to substitute for
the soft alloys generally in use for bear-
ings a metal almost as hard as the axle
itself. Phosphor bronze (q. v.) is fre-
quently employed for this purpose, as it
can easily be made as hard as wrought
or cast steel. In this case the metal is
used in a thin layer, and serves only,
as it were, to fill out the small interstices
caused by wear on the axle and bearing,
the latter being usually made of some
rather easily fusible alloy of lead and tin.
Such bearings are very durable, but ex-
pensive, and can only be used for large
machines. For small machines, ?*ȣ-
ning gently and uniformly, wrhite-metal
bearings are preferred, and do excellent
work, if the axle is not too heavily loaded.
For axles which have a high rate of revo-
lution, bearings made of quite hard
metals are chosen, and with proper care
— which, indeed, must be given to bear-
ings of any material — they will last for a
long time without needing repair.
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Other white bearing metals are:
XXI. — Tin, 8.5; antimony, 10; cop-
per, 5 parts.
XXII.— Tin, 42; antimony, 16; lead,
42 parts.
XXIII. — Tin, 72; antimony, 26; cop-
per, 2 parts.
XXIV. —Tin, 81; antimony, 12.5;
copper, 6.5 parts.
White Metals Based on Copper. —
I. — Copper, 65 parts; arsenic, 55 parts.
II. — Copper, 64 parts; arsenic, 50
parts.
III. — Copper, 10 parts; zinc, 20 parts;
nickel, 30 parts.
IV.— Nickel, 70 parts; copper, 30
parts; zinc, 20 parts.
V. — Nickel, 60 parts; copper, 30 parts;
zinc, 30 parts,
VI. — Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 4 parts;
zinc, 4 parts.
VII. — Copper, 10 parts; nickel, 5
parts; zinc, 5 parts.
VIII.— Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 3
parts; zinc, 4 parts.
IX. — Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 25
parts; zinc, 25 parts.
X. — Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24
parts; zinc, 21 parts.
XI. — Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts;
zinc, 16 parts; iron, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts.
IX, X, and XI are suitable for table-
ware.
XII. — Copper, 67 parts, and arsenic,
53 parts.
XIII. — Copper, 63 parts, and arsenic,
57 parts.
XII and XIII are bright gray, un-
affected by the temperature of boiling wa-
ter; they are fusible at red heat.
White Metals Based on Platinum.—
I. — Platinum, 1 part; copper, 4 parts;
or platinum, 1* parts; copper, 3£ parts.
II. — Platinum, 10 parts; tin, 90 parts;
or platinum, 8 parts; tin, 92 parts.
III. — Platinum, 7 parts; copper, 13
parts; tin, 80 parts.
IV.— Platinum, 2 parts; steel, 98 parts.
V.— Platinum, 2.5 parts; steel, 97.5
parts.
IV and V are for gun metal.
Miscellaneous White-Metal Alloys. —
I. — For lining cross-head slides: Lead,
65 parts; antimony, 25 parts; copper,
10 parts. Some object to white metal
containing lead or zinc. It has been
found, however, that lead and zinc
have properties of great use in these
alloys.
II. — Tin, 85 parts; antimony, 7£
parts; copper, 7i parts.
III. — Tin, 90 parts; copper, 3 parts;
antimony, 7 parts.
80
ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT
ZINC ALLOYS:
Bidery Metal. — This is sometimes
composed of 31 parts of zinc, 2 parts of
copper, and 2 parts of lead; the whole is
melted on a layer of rosin or wax to avoid
oxidation. This metal is very resistive;
it does not oxidize in air or moisture. It
takes its name from the town of Bider,
near Hyderabad (India), where it was
prepared for the first time industrially
for the manufacture of different utensils.
Other compositions of Indian Bidery
metal (frequently imitated in England)
are about as follows:
P.O.
Copper. . . 3.5
Zinc 93.4
Tin
Lead.. 3.1
P.O.
11.4
84.3
1.4
2.9
P.O.
16
112
2
4
Erhardt recommends the following as
being both ductile and hard:
Zinc 89 to 93
Tin 9 to 6
Lead 2 to 4
Copper 2 to 4
The tin is first melted, and the lead,
zinc, and copper added successively.
Zinc -Nickel. —Zinc, 90 parts; nickel,
10 parts. Used in powder form for
painting and cloth printing purposes.
Platine for Dress Buttons. — Copper,
43 parts; zinc, 57 parts.
UNCLASSIFIED ALLOYS :
Alloys for Drawing Colors on Steel. —
Alloys of various composition are suc-
cessfully used for drawing colors on steel.
To draw to a straw color use 2 parts of
lead and 1 part of tin, and melt in an
iron ladle. Hold the steel piece to be
drawn in the alloy as it melts and it will
turn to straw color. This mixture melts
at a temperature of about 437° F. For
darker yellow use 9 parts of lead to 4
parts of tin, which melts at 458° F. For
purple, use 3 parts of lead to 1 part
of tin, the melting temperature being
482° F. For violet, use 9 parts of lead
to 2 parts of tin, which melts at 494° F.
Lead without any alloy will draw steel
to a dark blue. The above apply to
steel only since iron requires a somewhat
greater neat and is more or less uncer-
tain in handling.
Alloy for Pattern Letters and Figures.
— A good alloy for casting pattern letters
and figures and similar small parts of
brass, iron, or plaster molds, is made of
lead 80 parts, and antimony 20 parts.
A better alloy will be lead 70 parts, an-
timony and bismuth each 15 parts. To
insure perfect work the molds should
be quite hot by placing them over a Bun-
sen burner.
Alloy for Caliper and Gage -Rod Cast-
ings.— A mixture of 30 parts zinc to 70
parts aluminum gives a light and durable
alloy for gage rods and caliper legs; the
gage rods must be steel tipped, for the
alloy is soft and wears away too rapidly
for gage points.
Alloys for Small Casting Molds.— Tin,
75 parts, and lead, 22 parts; or 75 parts
of zinc and 25 parts of tin; or 30 parts of
tin and 70 parts of lead; or 60 parts of
lead and 40 parts of bismuth.
ALLOYS FOR METAL FOIL:
See Metal Foil.
ALMOND COLD CREAM:
See Cosmetics.
ALMOND LIQUEURS:
See Wines and Liquors.
ALTARS, Tp CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALUM :
Burnt Alum. — I. — Heat the alum in a
porcelain dish or other suitable vessel
till it liquefies, then raise and continue
the heat, not allowing it to exceed 400°,
till aqueous vapor ceases to be disen-
gaged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent of
its weight. Reduce the residue to pow-
der, and preserve it in a well-stoppered
bottle. — Cooley.
II. — Heat ordinary alum (alumina
alum) with constant stirring in an iron
pan in which it will first melt quietly,
and then commence to form blisters.
Continue heating until a dry white mass
of a loose character remains, which is
powdered and kept in well-closed glasses.
ALUM BATH:
See Photography.
Aluminum and its Treatment
HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM:
Blanching of Aluminum. — Aluminum
is one of the metals most inalterable by
air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum
tarnish quickly enough without being
ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT
81
Altered. They may be restored to their
mat whiteness in the following manner:
Immerse the aluminum articles in a
boiling bath of caustic potash; next
plunge them quickly into nitric acid,
rinse and let dry. It must be under-
stood that this method is applicable only
to pieces entirely of aluminum.
Decolorized Aluminum. — Gray or un-
sightly aluminum may be restored to its
white color by washing with a mixture
of 30 parts of borax dissolved in 1,000
parts of water, with a few drops of am-
monia added.
Mat Aluminum. — In order to impart
to aluminum the appearance of mat
silver, plunge the article into a hot bath
composed of a 10-per-cent solution of
caustic soda saturated with kitchen salt.
Leave it in the bath for 15 to 20 seconds,
then wash and brush; put back into the
bath for half a minute, wash anew and
dry in sawdust.
To Blacken Aluminum. — I. — The sur-
face of the sheet to be colored is polished
with very fine emery powder or finest
emery cloth. After polishing pour a
thin layer of olive oil over the surface
and heat slowly over an alcohol flame.
Large sheets must, of course, be heated
in the drying oven. After a short while
pour on oil again, in order to obtain ab-
solute uniformity of the coating, and heat
the plate once more. Under the action
of the heat the plate turns first brown,
then black, according to the degrees of
heat. When the desired coloration has
been attained, the plate is polished over
again, after cooling, with a woolen rag
or soft leather.
II.— White arsenic 1 ounce
Sulphate of iron .... 1 ounce
Hydrochloric acid . . 12 ounces
Water 12 ounces
When the arsenic and iron are dis-
solved by the acid add the water. The
aluminum to be blackened should be
well cleaned with fine emery powder
and washed before immersing in the
blackening solution. When the deposit
of black is deep enough dry off with fine
sawdust and lacquer.
Decorating Aluminum.— A process for
decorating aluminum, patented in Ger-
many, prescribes that the objects be first
corroded, which is usually done with
caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new
method which consists in heating 3 parts
of sulphuric acid with 1 part of water to
140° to 158° F., in an enameled vessel.
Into this liquid dip the aluminum arti-
cles, rinsing them off clean and then dry-
ing them well. The corroded articles
are now placed in a bath consisting of
1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent),
1.50 parts of antimony, 250 parts of
chemically pure hydrochloric acid, 100
parts of manganous nitrate, and 20 parts
of purified and finally elutriated graph-
ite. In this bath, which is heated to
86°-95° F., the objects are left until
fumes develop around them, which takes
place in a few seconds. Now they are
put over a coal fire or similar arrange-
ment until the alcohol is burned up and
there is no more smoke. After they are
somewhat cooled off, they are laid into
cold water and worked with a brush, then
rinsed with water and well dried. The
pieces are now provided with a gray me-
tallic coating, consisting mainly of anti-
mony, manganese, and graphite. This
metallic layer renders them capable of re-
ceiving a lacquer which is best prepared
from 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent),
50 parts of sandarac, 100 parts of shellac,
and 100 parts of nigrosine (black aniline
color). Then the articles are quickly
but thoroughly rinsed off, dried in
warmed air for a few minutes, and baked
in ovens or over a moderate coal fire
until they do not smoke any more and no
more gloss can be seen. Finally they
are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated
with thin linseed-oil varnish, and the ob-
jects thus treated now appear dull black,
like velvet. The covering withstands all
action of the weather, so that cooking
vessels coated with this varnish on the
outside can be placed on the fire without
injury to the coating. If the articles are
engraved, the aluminum appears almost
glossy white under the black layer at the
engraved places. When the pieces have
been provided with the gray metallic
coating, colored lacquer may also be
applied with the brush. In this manner
paintings, etc., may be done on alu-
minum, while not possible on unprepared
aluminum surfaces, which will not retain
them.
Making Castings in Aluminum. — The
method adopted in preparing molds
and cores for aluminum work is neces-
sarily somewhat the same as for brass,
but there are particular points which
need attention to insure successful work.
Both in the sand and the making of the
molds there are some small differences
which make considerable variation in
the results, and the temperature at which
the metal is poured is a consideration of
some importance.
In selecting the sand, which should
ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT
not have been previously used, that of a
fine grain should be chosen, but it should
not have any excess of aluminous matter,
or it will not permit of the free escape
of gases and air, this being an important
matter. Besides this, the sand must be
used as dry as possible consistent with its
holding against the flow of the metal,
and having only moderate compression
in ramming.
In making the molds it is necessary
to remember that aluminum has a large
contraction in cooling, and also that' at
certain temperatures it is very weak and
tears readily, while all metals shrink
away from the mold when this is
wholly outside the casting, but they
shrink on to cores or portions of the
mold partly inclosed by metal. Thus,
if casting a plate or bar of metal, it will
shrink away from the mold in all direc-
tions; but if casting a square frame, it
shrinks away from the outside only,
while it shrinks on to the central part
or core. With brass, or iron, or such
metals, this is not of much importance,
but with some others, including alumi-
num, it is of great importance, because
if the core or inclosed sand will not give
somewhat with the contraction of the
metal, torn or fractured castings will be
the result. Both for outside and inside
molds, and with cores used with alu-
minum, the sand should be compressed
as little as possible, and hard ramming
must in every case be avoided, particu-
larly where the metal surrounds the sand.
The molds must be very freely vented,
and not only at the joint of the mold,
but by using the vent wire freely through
the body of the mold itself; in fact, for
brass the venting would be considered
excessive. With aluminum it is, how-
ever, necessary to get the air off as rapid-
ly as possible, because the metal soon
gets sluggish in the mold, and unless it
runs up quickly it runs faint at the edges.
The ingates should be wide and of fair
area, but need careful making to prevent
their drawing where they enter the cast-
ing, the method of doing this being
known to most molders.
If it is considered desirable to use a
specially made-up facing sand for the
molds where the metal is of some thick-
ness, the use of a little pea or bean meal
will be all that is necessary. To use this,
first dry as much sand as may be re-
quired and pass through a 20-mesh sieve,
and to each bushel of the fine sand rub
in about 4 quarts of meal, afterwards
again passing through the sieve to insure
regular mixing. This sand should then
be damped as required, being careful
that all parts are equally moist, rubbing
on a board being a good way to get it
tough, and in good condition, with the
minimum of moisture.
The molds should not be sleeked with
tools, but they may be dusted over with
plumbago or steatite, smoothing with
a camel's-hair brush, in cases in which a
very smooth face is required on the
castings. Preferably, however, the use
of the brush even should be avoided.
Patterns for aluminum should be kept
smooth and well varnished.
In melting the metal it is necessary to
use a plumbago crucible which is clean
and wnich has not been used for other
metals. Clay or silica crucibles are not
good for this metal, especially silica, on
account of the metal absorbing silicon
and becoming hard under some condi-
tions of melting. A steady fire is neces-
sary, and the fuel should reach only
about halfway up the crucible, as it is
not desirable to overheat the crucible or
metal. The metal absorbs heat for
some time and then fuses with some ra-
pidity, hence the desirability of a steady
heat; and as the metal should be poured
when of a claret color under the film of
oxide which forms on the surface, too
rapid a heating is not advisable. The
molding should always be well in ad-
vance of the pouring, because the metal
should be used as soon as it is ready; for
not only is waste caused, but the metal
loses condition if kept in a molten state
for long periods. The metal should be
poured rapidly, but steadily, and when
cast up there should not be a large head
of metal left on top of the runner. In
fact, it is rather a disadvantage to leave
a large head, as this tends to draw rather
than to feed the casting.
With properly prepared molds, and
careful melting, fluxes are not required,
but ground cryolite — a fluoride of sodium
and aluminum — is sometimes used to
increase the fluidity of the metal. In
using this, a few ounces according to
the bulk of metal to be treated is put
into the molten metal before it is taken
from the furnace, and well stirred in,
and as soon as the reaction apparently
ceases the pot is lifted and the metal at
once skimmed and poured. The use of
sodium in any form with aluminum is
very undesirable, however, and should
be avoided, and the same remark applies
to tin, but there is no objection to alloy-
ing with zinc, when the metal thus pro-
duced is sold as an alloy.
Aluminum also casts very well in molds
of plaster of Paris and crushed bath
brick when such molds are perfectly dry
ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT
and well vented, smoothness being se-
cured by brushing over with dry stea-
tite or plumbago. When casting in
metal molds, these should be well
brushed out with steatite or plumbago,
and made fairly hot before pouring, as in
cold molds the metal curdles and be-
comes sluggish, with the result that the
castings run up faint.
To Increase the Toughness, Density,
and Tenacity of Aluminum. — For the
purpose of improving aluminum, with-
out increasing its specific gravity, the
aluminum is mixed with 4 to 7 per cent
of phosphorus, whereby the density, te-
nacity, and especially the toughness are
said to be enhanced.
WORKING OF SHEET ALUMINUM:
The great secret, if there is any, in
working aluminum, either pure or al-
loyed, consists in the proper lubricant
and the shape of the tool. Another
great disadvantage in the proper working
of the metal is that, when a manufac-
turer desires to make up an article, he
will procure the pure metal in order to
make his samples, which, of course, is
harder to work than the alloy. But the
different grades of aluminum sheet which
are on the market are so numerous for
different classes of work that it might
be advisable to consider them for a mo-
ment before passing to the method of
working them.
The pure metal, to begin with, can
be purchased of all degrees of hardness,
from the annealed, or what is known as
the "dead soft" stock, to the pure alumi-
num hard rolled. Then comes a harder
grade of alloys, running from "dead
soft" metal, which will draw up hard, to
the same metal hard rolled; and, still
again, another set of alloys which, per-
haps, are a little harder still when hard
rolled, and will, when starting with the
"dead soft," spin up into a utensil which,
when finished, will probably be as stiff as
brass. These latter alloys are finding
a large sale for replacing brass used in all
classes of manufactured articles.
To start with lathe work on aluminum,
probably more difficulty has been found
nere, especially in working pure metal,
and more complaints are heard from
this source than from any other. As
stated before, however, these difficulties
can all be readily overcome, if the proper
tools and the proper lubricants are used,
as automatic screw machines are now
made so that they can be operated when
working aluminum just as readily as
when they are working brass, and in
some cases more readily. To start with
the question of the tool, this should be
made as what is known as a "shearing
tool," that is, instead of a short, stubby
point, such as would be used in turning
brass, the point should be lengthened
out and a lot of clearance provided on
the inside of the tool, so as to give the
chips of the metal a good chance to free
themselves and not cause a clogging
around the point of the tool — a simi-
lar tool, for instance, to what would be
used for turning wood.
The best lubricant to be used would
be coal oil or water, and plenty of it. The
latter is almost as good as coal oil if
enough of it is used, and with either of
these lubricants and a tool properly
made, there should be no difficulty what-
soever in the rapid working of aluminum,
either on the lathe or on automatic screw
machines.
To go from the lathe to the drawing
press, the same tools here would be used
in drawing up shapes of aluminum as
are used for drawing up brass or other
metals; the only precaution necessary
in this instance being to use a proper
lubricant, which in this case is a cheap
grade of vaseline, or in some cases lard
oil, but in the majority of instances better
results will be secured by the use of
vaseline. Aluminum is probably sus-
ceptible of deeper drawing with less
occasion to anneal than any of the other
commercial metals. It requires but
one-third or one-fourth of as much an-
nealing as brass or copper. For in--
stance, an article which is now manu-
factured in brass, requiring, say, three or
four operations before the article is fin-
ished, would probably have to be an-
nealed after every operation. With
aluminum, however, if the proper grade
is used, it is generally possible to perform
these three operations without annealing
the metal at all, and at the same time to
produce a finished article which, to all
intents and purposes, is as stiff as an
article made of sheet brass.
Too much stress cannot be laid on the
fact of starting with the proper grade of
metal, for either through ignorance or
by not observing this point is the founda-
tion of the majority of the complaints
that aluminum "has been tried and found
wanting." If, however, it should be
found necessary to anneal aluminum,
this can be readily accomplished by
heating it in an ordinary muffle, being
careful that the temperature shall not
be too high— about 650° or 700° F. The
best test as to when the metal has
reached the proper temperature is to take
a soft pine stick and draw it across the
84
ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT
metal. If it chars the stick and leaves
a black mark on the metal, it is suffi-
ciently annealed and is in a proper con-
dition to proceed with further opera-
tion.
Next taking up the question of spin-
ning aluminum, success again depends
particularly on starting with the proper
metal. The most satisfactory speed
for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diam-
eter is about 2,600 revolutions a minute,
and for larger or smaller diameters the
speed should be so regulated as to give
tne same velocity at the circumference.
Aluminum is a very easy metal to spin
and no difficulty should be found at all
in spinning the proper grades of sheets.
Several factories that are using large
quantities of aluminum now, both for
spinning and stamping, are paying their
men by the piece the same amount that
they formerly paid on brass and tin work,
and it is stated that the men working on
this basis make anywhere from 10 to
20 per cent more wages by working alu-
minum.
After aluminum has been manufac-
tured into the shape of an article, the next
process is the finishing of it. The best
polish can be obtained by first cutting
down the metal with an ordinary rag buff
on which use tripoli, and then finish it
with a dry red rouge which comes in the
lump form, or that which is known as
"White Diamond Rouge." One point,
however, that it is necessary to observe
carefully is that both the tripoli and the
rouge should be procured ground as fine
as it is possible to grind them; for, if this
is not done, the metal will have little fine
scratches all over it, and will not appear
as bright and as handsome as it other-
wise would.
If it is desired to put on a frosted ap-
pearance, this can either be done by
scratch brushing or sand blasting. A
brass wire scratch brush, made of
crimped wire of No. 32 to No. 36 B. &
S. gage, with three or four rows of bris-
tles, will probably give the best results.
This work of scratch brushing can be
somewhat lessened, however, if, before
applying the scratch brush to the surface
of the aluminum, the article is first cut
down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel
and fine Connecticut sand, placing the
sand between the surface of the alumi-
num and the wheel, so that the skin and
the irregularities on the surface are re-
moved, and then putting the article on
a buffing wheel before attempting to
scratch brush it. This method, how-
ever, is probably more advantageous in
the treating of aluminum castings than
for articles manufactured out of the sheet
metal, as in the majority of cases it is
simply necessary before scratch brushing
to cut down the article with tripoli, and
then polish it with rouge as already de-
scribed, before putting on the scratch
brush; in this way the brush seems to
take hold quicker and better, and to pro-
duce a more uniform polish.
An effect similar to the scratch-brush
finish can be got by sand blasting, and
by first sand blasting and then scratch
brushing the sheets, a good finish is ob-
tained with very much less labor than by
scratch brushing alone. Another very
pretty frosted effect is procured by first
sand blasting and then treated as here-
inafter described by "dipping" and
"frosting," and many variations in the
finish of aluminum can be got by varying
the treatment, either by cutting down
with tripoli and polishing, scratch brush-
ing, sand blasting, dipping, and frosting,
and by combinations of those treatments.
A very pretty mottled effect is secured on
aluminum by first polishing and then
scratch brushing and then holding the
aluminum against a soft pine wheel, run
at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by
careful manipulation, quite regular forms
of a mottled appearance can be obtained.
The dipping and frosting of aluminum
sheet is probably the cheapest way of
producing a nice finish. First remove
all grease and dirt from the article by
dipping in benzine, then dip into water
in order that the benzine adhering to
the article may be removed, so as not to
affect the strength of the solution into
which it is next dipped. After they have
been taken out of the water and well
shaken, the articles should be plunged in
a strong solution of caustic soda or caus-
tic potash, and left there a sufficient
length of time until the aluminum starts
to turn black. Then they should be
removed, dipped in water again, and then
into a solution of concentrated nitric
and sulphuric acid, composed of 24 parts
of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric acid.
After being removed, the article should
be washed thoroughly in water and dried
in hot sawdust in the usual way. This
finish can also be varied somewhat by
making the solution of caustic soda of
varying degrees of strength, or by adding
a small amount of common salt to the
solution.
In burnishing the metal use a blood-
stone or a steel burnisher. In burnish-
ing use a mixture of melted vaseline and
coal oil, or a solution composed of 2
tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolved
in about a quart of hot water, with a few
AMALGAMS
85
drops of ammonia added. In engrav-
ing, which adds materially to the ap-
pearance of finished castings, book cov-
ers, picture frames, and similar articles
made of sheet, probably the best lubri-
cant to use on an engraver's tool in order
to obtain a clean cut, which is bright, is
naphtha or coal oil, or a mixture of coal
oil and vaseline. The naphtha, how-
ever, is preferred, owing to the fact that
it does not destroy the satin finish in the
neighborhood of the cut, as the other
lubricants are very apt to do. There is,
however, as much skill required in using
and making a tool in order to give a
bright, clean cut as there is in the choice
of the lubricant to be used. The tool
should be made somewhat on the same
plan as the lathe tools already outlined.
That is, they should be brought to a
sharp point and be "cut back" rather
far, so as to give plenty of clearance.
There has been one class of work in
aluminum that has been developed
lately and only to a certain extent, in
which there are great possibilities, and
that is in drop forging the metal. Some
very superior bicycle parts have been
manufactured by drop forging. This can
be accomplished probably more readily
with aluminum than with other metals,
for the reason that it is not necessary
with all the. alloys to work them hot;
consequently, they can be worked and
handled more rapidly.
ALUMINUM, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
ALUMINUM BRONZE:
See Alloys under Bronzes.
ALUMINUM CASTINGS:
See Casting.
ALUMINUM PAPER:
See Paper.
ALUMINUM PLATING:
See Plating.
ALUMINUM POLISHES:
See Polishes.
Amalgams
See also Easily Fusible Alloys under
Alloys.
The name amalgam is given to al-
loys of metals containing mercury. The
term comes to us from the alchemists.
It signifies softening, because an excess
of mercury dissolves a large number of
metals.
Preparation of Amalgams. — Mercury
forms amalgams with most metals. It
unites directly and readily, either cold or
hot, with potassium, sodium, barium,
strontium, calcium, magnesium, zinc,
cadmium, tin, antimony, lead, bismuth,
silver, and gold; directly, but more dif-
ficultly, with aluminum, copper, and
palladium. This combination takes
place oftenest at the ordinary temper-
ature; certain metals, however, like
aluminum and antimony, combine only
when heated in presence of quicksilver.
Quicksilver has no direct action on
metals of high fusing points: manganese,
iron, nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum,
and their congeners. Still, amalgams
of these metals can be obtained of buty-
rous consistency, either by electrolysis of
their saline solutions, employing quick-
silver as the negative electrode, or by the
action of an alkaline amalgam (potas-
sium or sodium), on their concentrated
and neutral saline solutions. These
same refractory metals are also amalga-
mated superficially when immersed in
the amalgam of sodium or of ammonium
in presence of water.
Processes for preparing amalgams by
double decomposition between an alkaline
amalgam and a metallic salt, or by elec-
trolysis of saline solutions, with employ-
ment of mercury as the negative elec-
trode, apply a fortiori to metals capable
of combining directly with the quick-
silver. The latter of these methods is
especially utilized for the preparation of
alkaline earthy metals by electrolytic
decomposition of the solutions of their
salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver
as a cathode.
General Properties of Amalgams. —
Amalgams are liquid when the quick-
silver is in great excess; solid, but readily
fusible, when the alloyed metal pre-
dominates.
They have a metallic luster, and a
metallic structure which renders them
brittle. They even form crystallized
metallic combinations of constant propor-
tions, dissolved in an excess of quick-
silver, when the excess is separated by
compression in a chamois skin, or by
filtration in a glass funnel of slender
stem, terminating with an orifice almost
capillary.
According as the fusing heat of a metal
is less or greater than its combination
heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation
of this metal produces an elevation or a
lowering of temperature. Thus potas-
86
AMALGAMS
sium, sodium, and cadmium, in alloy
with quicksilver, disengage heat; while
zinc, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, and
silver combine with mercury with ab-
sorption of heat. The amalgamation of
162 parts of quicksilver with 21 parts of
lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and
28.5 parts of bismuth, lowers the tem-
perature of the mixture 79° F.
Amalgams formed with disengage-
ment of heat are electro-negative with
reference to the metals alloyed with the
quicksilver. The products with absorp-
tion of heat are electro-negative with ref-
erence to the metals combined with the
quicksilver; consequently, in a battery
of elements of pure cadmium and amal-
gamated cadmium, the cadmium will be
the negative pole; in case of zinc and
amalgamated zinc, the zinc will be the
positive pole.
Heat decomposes all amalgams, va-
porizing the mercury and leaving the
metal alloys as a residue.
Water is decomposed by the amal-
gams of potassium and sodium, because
the heat of formation of these amalgams,
although considerable, is even less than
the heat disengaged by potassium and
sodium, on decomposing water. The
alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve
as a source of nascent hydrogen in pres-
ence of water, giving rise to an action
less energetic, and often more advan-
tageous, than that of the alkaline metals
alone. Thus is caused the frequent em-
ployment of sodium amalgam for hydro-
genizing a large number of bodies. As
a consequence of their action on water,
the alkaline amalgams are changed by
moist air, with production of free alkali
or alkaline carbonate.
Applications of Potassium Amalgams.
— I. — They furnish a process for prepar-
ing potassium by the decomposition of
potash by the electric current, by em-
ploying quicksilver as the cathode, and
vaporizing the quicksilver of the amal-
gam formed by heating this in a current
of dry hydrogen.
II. — They can serve for the prepara-
tion of the amalgams of the metals, other
than those of the alkaline group, by de-
composing the salts of these metals, with
formation of a salt of potash and of the
amalgam of the metal corresponding to
the original salt.
III. — They can be employed as a
source of nascent hydrogen in presence
of water for hydrogenizing many sub-
stances.
Applications of Sodium Amalgams. —
These are nearly the same as those of the
potassium amalgams, but the sodium
amalgams are employed almost exclu-
sively, because sodium is easier to handle
than potassium, and is cheaper. These
employments are the following:
I. — Sodium amalgam furnishes a proc-
ess for the preparation of sodium when
soda is decomposed by means of the
electric current, employing quicksilver
as the cathode, and afterwards vaporizing
the quicksilver of the amalgam formed
by heating this in a current of dry hy-
drogen.
II. — Amalgams of sodium serve for
the preparation of amalgams of the oth-
er metals, particularly alkaline earthy
metals and metals of high fusing points,
by decomposing the salts of these metals,
with formation of a salt of soda and of
the amalgam of the metal corresponding
to the original salt.
III. — They serve for amalgamating
superficially the metals of high fusing
point, called "refractory," such as iron
and platinum, when a well-cleaned plate
of these metals is immersed in sodium
amalgam in presence of water.
IV. — An amalgam of 2 or 3 per cent of
sodium is employed in the processes of
extraction of gold by amalgamation. It
has the property of rendering quick-
silver more brilliant, and consequently
more energetic, by acting as a deoxidant
on the pellicle of oxide formed on its
surface in presence of certain ores,
which, by keeping it separated from the
particles of gold, destroy its activity.
Sodium amalgam of 3 per cent is utilized
with success for the amalgamated plates
employed in crushers and other appa-
ratus for treating the ores of gold. If a
few drops of this amalgam are spread
on a plate of copper, of tin, or of zinc, a
brilliant coating of an amalgam of tin,
copper, or zinc is immediately formed.
V. — Amalgams of from 2 to 8 per cent
of sodium serve frequently in laborato-
ries for reducing or hydrogenizing or-
ganic combinations, -without running
the risk of a partial destruction of these
compounds by too intense action, as
may occur by employing free sodium
instead of its amalgam.
Applications of Barium Amalgams.—
These can, by distillation, furnish bari-
um. It is one of the processes for pre-
paring this metal, which, when thus ob-
tained, almost always retains a little
sodium.
Applications of Strontium Amalgams.
— These amalgams, washed and dried
1 rapidly immediately after their prepara-
I tion, and then heated to a nascent red
AMALGAMS
87
in a current of dry hydrogen, yield a
fused mass of strontium.
Applications of Cadmium Amalgams. —
Amalgams of cadmium, formed of equal
weights of cadmium and quicksilver,
have much power of cohesion and are
quite malleable; the case is the same with
an amalgam formed of 1 part of cad-
mium and 2 parts of quicksilver. They
are used as dental cements for plugging
teeth; for the same purpose an amalgam
of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of cad-
mium, and 2 parts of tin may be used.
Applications of Zinc Amalgams. — The
principal employment of zinc amalgams
is their use as a cathode or negative elec-
trode in the batteries of Munson, Dan-
iels, and Lechanche. This combination
is designed to render the zinc non-attack-
able by the exciting liquid of the battery
with open circuit. The action of the
mercury is to prevent the zinc from form-
ing a large number of small voltaic ele-
ments when foreign bodies are mingled
with the metal; in a word, the giving to
ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc,
and consequently of causing a great sav-
ing in expense.
For amalgamating a zinc plate it is
plunged for a few seconds into water in
which there is one-sixteenth in volume
of sulphuric acid, then rubbing with
a copper-wire brush which has been
dipped in the quicksilver. The mercury
takes more readily on the zinc when,
after the zinc has been cleaned with
water sharpened with sulphuric acid,
it is moistened with a solution of corro-
sive sublimate, which is reduced and
furnishes a first very thin coat of amal-
gam, on which the quicksilver is im-
mediately fixed by simple immersion
without rubbing.
The zinc of a battery may be amalga-
mated by putting at the bottom of the
compartment containing each element,
a little quicksilver in such a way that the
zinc touches the liquid. The amalga-
mation is effected under the influence of
the current, but this process applies only
on condition that the zinc alone touches
the bottom of the vessel containing the
quicksilver.
Applications of Manganese Amalgams.
— These may serve for the preparation
of manganese. For this purpose it is
sufficient to distill in a current of pure
Lydrogen. The manganese remains in
the form of a grayish powder.
Applications of Tin Amalgams. — I. —
Tinning of glass. This operation is
accomplished in the following manner :
On a cast-iron table, quite horizontal, a
sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass
is spread out and covered with a layer of
quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in thick-
ness. The glass is made to slide on the
sheet of tin in such a way as to drive off
the excess of quicksilver; wrhen the two
surfaces are covered without interposi-
tion of air, weights are placed on the
glass. In a few days, the glass may be
removed, having been covered with an
adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts
of tin and 1 part of quicksilver. (See
also Mirrors.)
II. — An amalgam consisting of 2 parts
of zinc and 1 part tin may be used for
covering the cushions of frictional elec-
tric machines. This amalgam is pre-
pared by first melting the zinc and tin in
a crucible and adding the quicksilver
previously heated.
III. — Mention has been made of the
cadmium amalgam employed for plug-
ging teeth, an amalgam of 2 parts of
quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part of
cadmium. For the same purpose an
amalgam of tin, silver, and gold is em-
ployed. (See also Cements, Dental.)
Applications of Copper Amalgams. —
I. — An amalgam of 30 per cent of copper
has been employed for filling teeth.
This use has been abandoned on account
of the inconvenience occasioned by the
great changeableness of the product.
II. — The amalgam of 30 per cent of
copper, designated by the name of "me-
tallic mastic," is an excellent cement for
repairing objects and utensils of porce-
lain. For this employment, the broken
surfaces are heated to 662° F., and a little
of the amalgam, previously heated to the
consistency of melted wax, is applied.
III. — Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45
per cent of copper, rendered plastic by
heating and grinding, may serve for ob-
taining with slight compression copies of
delicate objects, which may, after hard-
ening of the amalgam, be reproduced,
either in wax or by galvanic process.
IV. — According to Debray, when a
medal, obtained with an amalgam of
45 per cent of copper, by compression in
the soft state, in molds of gutta percha,
is heated progressively to redness in an
atmosphere of hydrogen, the quicksilver
is volatilized gradually, and the particles
of copper come together without fusion
in such a way as to produce a faithful
reproduction, formed exclusively of me-
tallic copper, of the original medal.
V. — In the metallurgy of gold the
crushers are furnished with amalga-
mated plates of copper for retaining the
gold. The preparation of these plates,
88
AMALGAMS
which are at least 0.128 inches in thick-
ness, is delicate, requiring about two
weeks. They are freed from greasy mat-
ter by rubbing with ashes, or, better,
with a little sand and caustic soda, or if
more rapid action is desired, with a cloth
dipped in dilute nitric acid; they are
washed with water, then with a solution
of potassium cyanide, and finally brushed
with a mixture of sal ammoniac and a
little quicksilver, until the surface is
completely amalgamated. They are
finally made to absorb as much quick-
silver as possible. But the plates thus
treated are useful for only a few days
when they are sufficiently covered with a
layer of gold amalgam; in the meantime
they occasion loss of time and of gold.
So it is preferable to cover them arti-
ficially with a little gold amalgam, which
is prepared by dissolving gold in quick-
silver. Sometimes the amalgam of gold
is replaced by an amalgam of silver,
which is readily poured and more eco-
nomical.
Another method giving better results
consists in silvering copper slabs by elec-
troplating and covering them with a layer
of silver. Then it is only necessary to
apply a little quicksilver, which adheres
quite rapidly, so that they are ready for
use almost immediately, and are quite
active at the outset.
These amalgamation slabs ought to
be cleaned before each operation. Po-
tassium cyanide removes fatty matter,
and sal ammoniac the oxides of the low
metals.
Applications of Lead Amalgams. —
These meet with an interesting employ-
ment for the autogenous soldering of
lead. After the surfaces to be soldered
have been well cleaned, a layer of lead
amalgam is applied. It is afterwards
sufficient to pass along the line of junc-
tion a soldering iron heated to redness,
in order that the heat should cause the
volatilization of the quicksilver, and that
the lead, liberated in a state of fine divi-
sion, should be melted and cause the
adherence of the two surfaces. The
only precaution necessary is to avoid
breathing the mercurial vapor, which is
quite poisonous.
Applications of Bismuth Amalgams. —
The amalgam formed of 1 per cent of
bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver will
cause the strong adherence of glass. It
is employed with advantage in the tin-
ning of glass globes. For this operation
it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and
then passed over the whole surface of
the glass; it solidifies on cooling. For
the purpose of economizing the bismuth,
the price of which is high, the preceding
amalgam is replaced by another com-
posed of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of
bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin.
The bismuth, broken into small frag-
ments, is added to the tin and lead, pre-
viously melted in the crucible, and when
the mixture of the three metals becomes
fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while
stirring with an iron rod. The impuri-
ties floating on the surface are removed,
and when the temperature is sufficiently
lowered this amalgam is slbwly poured
into the vessels to be tinned, which have
been previously well cleaned and slightly
heated. M. Ditte recommends for the
same employment, as a very strong ad-
herent to the glass, an amalgam obtained
by dissolving hot 2 parts of bismuth and
1 part of lead in a solution of 1 part of
tin in 10 parts of quicksilver. By caus-
ing a quantity of this amalgam to move
around the inside of a receiver, clean,
dry, and slightly heated, the surface will
be covered with a thin, brilliant layer,
which hardens quite rapidly.
For the injection of anatomical pieces
an amalgam formed of 10 parts of quic c-
silver, 50 parts of bismuth, 31 parts of
lead, and 18 parts of tin, fusible at 77.5°
and solidifiable at 60° C., is made use of;
or, again, an amalgam composed of 9
parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part of quick-
silver fusible at 127J° F., and pasty at a
still lower temperature. This last amal-
gam may also be used for filling carious
teeth. The Darcet alloy, as known, con-
tains 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part of lead,
and 1 part of tin, and melts at 199^° F.
The addition of 1 part of quicksilver
lowers the fusing point to 104° F.
Applications of Silver Amalgams. — I. —
In the silvering of mirrors by the Petit-
jean method, which has almost univer-
sally replaced tinning, the property of
silver in readily amalgamating is taken
advantage of, by substituting the glass
after silvering to the action of a dilute
solution of double cyanide of mercury
and potassium in such a manner as to
form an amalgam of white and brilliant
silver adhering strongly to the glass. To
facilitate the operation and utilize all the
silver, while economizing the double cya-
nide, M. Lenoir has recommended the
following: Sprinkle the glass at the time
when it is covered with the mercurial
solution with very fine zinc powder,
which precipitates the quicksilver and
regulates the amalgamation.
II. — The metallurgy of silver also
takes advantage of the property of this
AMALGAMS
89
metal in combining cold with quicksil-
ver; this for the treatment of poor silver
ores.
In the Saxon or Freiburg process for
treating silver ores, recourse is had to
quicksilver in the case of amalgam in
amalgamating casks, in which the ore,
after grinding, is shaken with disks of
iron, and with mercury and water. The
amalgam, collected and filtered under
strong pressure, contains from 30 to 33
per cent of silver. It is distilled either
in cylindrical retorts of cast iron, fur-
nished with an exit tube immersed in
the water for condensing the mercurial
vapors, or on plates of iron, arranged
over each other along a vertical iron
stem, supported by a tripod at the bot-
tom of a tank filled with water, and
covered with an iron receiver, which is
itself surrounded with ignited charcoal.
It should be remarked that the last por-
tions of quicksilver in a silver amalgam
submitted to distillation are voiaiiiized
only under the action of a high and pro-
longed temperature.
Applications of Gold Amalgams. — I. —
Gilding with quicksilver. This process
of gilding, much employed formerly, is
now but little used. It can be applied
only to metals slightly fusible and capa-
ble of amalgamation, like silver, copper,
bronze, and brass. Iron can also be
gilded by this method, provided it is
previously covered with a coating of
copper. To perform this gilding the
surface is well cleaned, and the gold
amalgam, consisting of 2 parts of gold
and 1 part of quicksilver, prepared as
mentioned before, is applied. The piece
is afterwards heated to about the red, so
as to volatilize the mercury. The gold
remains, superficially alloyed with the
metal, and forms an extremely solid
layer of deadened gold, which can be
afterwards polished. The volatilization
should be effected under a chimney hav-
ing strong draught, in order to avoid the
poisonous action of the mercurial vapors.
II. — The amalgamation of gold finds
its principal applications in the treatment
of auriferous ores. The extraction of
small spangles of gold scattered in gold-
bearing sands is based on the ready
dissolution of gold in quicksilver, and
on the formation of an amalgam of solid
gold by compression and filtering through
a chamois skin, in a state more or less
liquid. The spangles of gold are shaken
with about their weight of quicksilver,
collected in the cavities of sluices and
mixed with a small quantity of sand.
The gold is dissolved and the sand re-
mains. The amalgam thus obtained is
compressed in a chamois skin, so as to
separate the excess of mercury which
passes through the pores of the skin; or,
yet again, it is filtered through a glass
funnel having a very slender stem, with
almost capillary termination. In both
cases an amalgam of solid gold remains,
which is submitted to the action of heat
in a crucible or cast-iron retort, com-
municating with a bent-iron tube, of
which the extremity, surrounded with a
cloth immersed in water, is arranged
above a receiver lialf full of water. The
quicksilver is vaporized and condensed
in the water. The gold remains in the
retort.
The property of gold of combining
readily with quicksilver is also used in
many kinds of amalgamating apparatus
for extraction and in the metallurgy of
gold.
In various operations it is essential
to keep the quicksilver active by preserv-
ing its limpidity. For this purpose
potassium cyanide and ammonium
chloride are especially employed; some-
times wood ashes, carbonate of soda,
hyposulphite of soda, nitrate of potash,
cupric sulphate, sea salt, and lime; the
latter for precipitating the soluble sul-
phates proceeding from the decomposi-
tion of pyrites.
The amalgamation of gold is favored
by a temperature of 38° to 45° C. (100°
to 113° F.), and still more by the em-
ployment of quicksilver in the nascent
state. This last property is the base of
the Designol process, which consists in
treating auriferous or auro-argentiferous
ores, first ground with sea salt, in revolv-
ing cylinders of cast iron, with iron and
mercury bichloride, in such a way that
the mercury precipitated collects the gold
and eventually the silver more effica
ciously.
Gold Amalgam. — Eight parts of gold
and 1 of mercury are formed into an
amalgam for plating by rendering the
gold into thin plates, making it red hot,
and then putting it into the mercury while
the latter is also heated to ebullition.
The gold immediately disappears in
combination with the mercury, after
which the mixture may be turned into
water to cool. It is then ready for use.
Zinc Amalgam for Electric Batteries.
• — Dissolve 2 parts of mercury in 1 part
of aqua regia. This accomplished, add
5 parts of hydrochloric acid. This solu-
tion is made warm. It suffices to dip
the zinc to be amalgamated into this
liquid only for a few seconds.
90
AMALGAMS— AMBER
Amalgam for Cementing Glass, Por-
celain, Etc. — Take tin 2 parts, and cad-
mium 1 part. Fuse in an iron spoon
or some vessel of the same material.
When the two materials are in fusion add
a little mercury, previously heated. Place
all in an iron crucible and boil, agitating
the mass with a pestle. This amalgam
is soft and can be kneaded between the
fingers. It may be employed for luting
glass or porcelain vessels, as well as for
filling teeth. It hardens in a short while.
Amalgam for Silvering Glass Balls. —
Lead, 25 parts; tin, 25 parts; bismuth,
25 parts; mercury, 25 parts; or, lead, 20
parts; tin, 20 parts; bismuth, 20 parts;
mercury, 40 parts. Melt the lead and
the tin, then add the bismuth; skim sev-
eral times and add the mercury, stirring
the composition vigorously.
(See also Mirror-Silvering).
Copper Amalgam. — Copper amalgam,
or so-called Viennese metal cement, crys-
tallizes with the greatest readiness and
acquires such hardness on solidifying
that it can be polished like gold. The
amalgam may also be worked under the
hammer or between rollers; it can also
be stamped, and retains its metallic luster
for a long time in the air. In air con-
taining hydrogen sulphide, however, it
quickly tarnishes and turns black. A
very special property of copper amalgam
consists in that it becomes very soft when
laid in water, and attains such pliancy
that it can be employed for modeling the
most delicate objects. After a few
hours the amalgam congeals again into
a very fine-grained, rather malleable
mass. An important application of
copper amalgam is that for cementing
metals. ^ All that is necessary for this
purpose is to heat the metals, which must
be bright, to 80-90° C. (176-194° F.), to
apply the amalgam and to press the metal
pieces together. They will cohere as
firmly as though soldered together.
Copper amalgam may be prepared in
the following manner:
Place strips of zinc in a solution of blue
vitriol and agitate the solution thor-
oughly. The copper thus obtained in
the form of a very fine powder is washed
and, while still moist, treated in a mor-
tar with a solution of mercury nitrate.
The copper powder thereby amalga-
mates more readily with the quicksilver.
Next, hot water is poured over the cop-
per, the mortar is kept hot, and the mer-
cury added. Knead with the pestle of
the mortar until the copper, pulverulent
in the beginning, has united with the
mercury into a very plastic mass. The
longer the kneading is continued the
more uniform will be the mass. As soon
as the amalgam has acquired the suitable
character — for its production 3 parts of
copper and 7 parts of mercury are used
— the water is poured off and the amal-
gam still soft is given the shape in which
it is to be kept.
For cementing purposes, the amalgam
is rolled out into small cylinders, whose
diameter is about 0.16 to 0.2 inches, with
a length of a few inches. In order to
produce with this amalgam impressions
of castings, which are made after wood-
cuts, the amalgam is rolled out hot
into a thin plate and pressed firmly
onto the likewise heated plaster cast.
After the amalgam has hardened the
thin plate of it may be reinforced by
pouring on molten type metal.
Silver Amalgam. — Silver amalgam can
easily be made with the help of finely
powdered silver. The mercury need
only be heated to 250° to 300° C. (482°
to 572° F.); silver powder is then sprin-
kled on it, and mixed with it by stirring.
The vessel is heated for several minutes
and then allowed to cool, the excess of
mercury being removed from the granu-
lated crystalline amalgam by pressing in
a leather bag. Silver amalgam can also
easily be made by dissolving silver in
nitric acid, evaporating the solution till
the excess of free acid is eliminated, di-
luting with distilled water, and adding
mercury to the fluid in the proportion of
4 parts, by weight, of mercury to 1 of the
silver originally used. The mercury
precipitates the silver in a metallic state,
and immediately forms an amalgam with
it; the fluid standing above after a time
contains no more silver, but consists of
a solution of mercury nitrate mixed with
whatever copper was contained in the
dissolved silver in the form of copper
nitrate. The absence of a white pre-
cipitate, if a few drops of hydrochloric
acid are added to a sample of the fluid
in a test tube, shows that all the silver
has been eliminated from the solution
and is present in the form of amalgam.
Amalgam for the Rubber of Electric
Machines. — Mercury, 100 parts; zinc, 50
parts; tin, 50 parts. Tnis amalgam
reduced to powder and incorporated
with grease can be applied to the rubber
of electric machines.
AMALGAM GOLD PLATING:
See Gilding under Plating.
AMBER :
Imitation Amber. — Melt carefully to-
gether pine rosin, 1; lacca in tabulis, 2;
white colophony, 15 parts.
AMBER CEMENT— ANILINE STAINS
91
AMBER CEMENT:
See Adhesives under Cements.
AMBER VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
AMBROSIA POWDER:
See Salts (Effervescent).
AMIDOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
AMETHYST (IMITATION) :
See Gems, Artificial.
AMMON-CARBONITE :
See Explosives.
Ammonia
Household Ammonia. — (See also House-
hold Formulas.) — Household ammonia is
simply diluted ammonia water to which
borax and soap have been added. To
make it cloudy add potassium nitrate
or methylated spirit. The following are
good formulas:
I. — Ammonia water .... 16 parts
Yellow soap 64 parts
Potassium nitrate... 1 part
Soft water, sufficient
to make 200 parts
Shave up the soap and dissolve it in
the water by heating, add the potassium
nitrate and dissolve. Cool, strain, skim
off any suds or bubbles, add the am-
monia, mix, and bottle at once.
II. — Yellow soap 10 grains
Borax 1 drachm
Lavender water. ... 20 minims
Stronger ammonia
water 6 ounces
Water, enough to
make 20 ounces
Dissolve the soap and borax in 5
ounces of boiling water; when cold add
the lavender water and ammonia, and
make up to a pint with water.
III. — Methylated spirit. .. 1 gallon
Soft water 1 gallon
Stronger ammonia
water 1 gallon
IV. — Ammonia water. — 5 pints
Distilled water 5 pints
Soap 100 grains
Olive oil 5 drachms
Cut the soap in shavings, boil with the
oil and water, cool, add the ammonia
water, and bottle. For use in laundries,
baths, and for general household pur-
poses add one tablespoonful to one
gallon of water.
V.— The best quality:
Alcohol, 94 per cent . . 4 ounces
Soft water 4 gallons
Oil of rosemary 4 drachms
Oil of citronella 3 drachms
Dissolve the oils in the alcohol and
add to the water. To the mixture add
4 ounces of talc (or fuller's earth will
answer), mix thoroughly, strain through
canvas, and to the colate add 1, 2, or 3
gallons of ammonia water, according to
the strength desired, in which has been
dissolved 1, 2, or 3 ounces of white 'curd,
or soft soap.
Liquor Ainmonii Anisatus. —
Oil of anise, by weight 1 part
Alcohol, by weight 24 parts
Water of ammonia, by weight. . 5 parts
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol and add
the water of ammonia.
It should be a clear, yellowish liquid.
Violet Color for Ammonia. — A purple-
blue color may be given to ammonia
water by adding an aqueous solution
of litmus. The shade, when pale
enough, will probably meet all views as
to a violet color.
Perfumed Ammonia Water. — The
following are typical formulas:
I. — Stronger water of am-
monia 6 ounces
Lavender water 1 ounce
Soft soap 10 grains
Water, enough to
make 16 ounces
II. — Soft soap 1 ounce
Borax 2 drachms
Cologne water | ounce
Stronger water of am-
monia 5£ ounces
Water, enough to
make 12 ounces
Rub up the soap and borax with water
until dissolved, strain and add the other
ingredients. The perfumes may be
varied to suit the price.
AMMONIA FOR FIXING PRINTS:
See Photography.
ANGOSTURA BITTERS:
See Wines and Liquors.
ANILINE :
See Dyes.
ANILINE IN PIGMENTS, TESTS FOR :
See Pigments.
ANILINE STAINS, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
ANISE CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
ANKARA:
See Butter.
ANNEALING OF STEEL, TOOLS, WIRE,
AND SPRINGS:
See Steel.
ANODYNES:
See Pain Killers.
ANT DESTROYERS:
See Insecticides.
Antidotes for Poisons
POISON, SYMPTOMS AND ANTI-
DOTES.
When a person has taken poison the
first thing to do is to compel the patient
to vomit, and for that purpose give any
emetic that can be most readily and
quickly obtained, and which is prompt
and energetic, but safe in its action.
For this purpose there is, perhaps,
nothing better than a large teaspoonful
of ground mustard in a tumblerful of
warm water, and it has the advantage of
being almost always at hand. If the dry
mustard is not to be had use mixed
mustard from the mustard pot. Its
operation may generally be facilitated
by the addition of a like quantity of
common table salt. If the mustard is
not at hand, give two or three teaspoon-
fuls of powdered alum in syrup or
molasses, and give freely of warm water
to drink; or give 10 to 20 grains of sul-
phate of zinc (white vitriol), or 20 to 30
grains of ipecac, with 1 or 2 grains of
tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm
water, and repeat every ten minutes until
three or four doses are given, unless
free vomiting is sooner produced. After
vomiting has taken place large draughts
of warm water should be given, so
that the vomiting will continue until the
poisonous substances have been thor-
oughly evacuated, and then suitable anti-
dotes should be given. If vomiting can-
not be produced the stomach pump
should be used. When it is known what
particular kind of poison has been swal-
lowed, then the proper antidote for that
poison should be given; but when this
cannot be ascertained, as is often the
case, give freely of equal parts of cal-
cined magnesia, pulverized charcoal,
and sesquioxide of iron, in a sufficient
quantity of water. This is a very harm-
less mixture and is likely to be of great
benefit, as the ingredients, though very
simple, are antidotes for the most com-
mon and active poisons. In case this
mixture cannot be obtained, the stomach
should be soothed and protected by the
free administration of demulcent, muci-
laginous, or oleaginous drinks, such as the
whites of eggs, milk, mucilage of gum
arabic, or slippery-elm bark, flaxseed
tea, starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot
mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or
melted butter or lard. Subsequently
the bowels should be moved by some
gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or
two of castor oil, or a teaspoonful of cal-
cined magnesia; and pain or other evi-
dence of inflammation must be relieved
by the administration of a few drops of
laudanum, and the repeated application
of hot poultices, fomentations, and mus-
tard plasters.
The following are the names of the
substances that may give rise to poison-
ing, most commonly used, and their anti-
dotes:
Mineral Acids — Sulphuric Acid (Oil
of Vitriol), Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis),
Muriatic Acid (Spirits of Salts). — Symp-
toms: Acid, burning taste in the moutn,
acute pain in the throat, stomach, and
bowels; frequent vomiting, generally
bloody; mouth and lips excoriated,
shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough,
copious stools, more or less bloody, with
great tenderness in the abdomen; diffi-
cult breathing, irregular pulse, excessive
thirst, while drink increases the pain
and rarely remains in the stomach; fre-
quent but vain efforts to urinate; cold
sweats, altered countenance; convul-
sions, generally preceding death. Nitric
acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric
acid, black ones. Treatment: Mix
calcined magnesia in milk or water to the
consistence of cream, and give freely to
drink a glassful every couple of minutes,
if it can be swallowed. Common soap
(hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or even
mortar from the wall mixed in water
may be given, until magnesia can be ob-
tained. Promote vomiting by tickling
the throat, if necessary, and when the
poison is got rid of, flaxseed or slippery-
elm tea, gruel, or other mild drinks.
The inflammation which always follows
needs good treatment to save the pa-
tient's life.
Vegetable Acids— Acetic, Citric, Ox-
alic, Tartaric. — Symptoms: Intense
burning pain of mouth, throat, and
stomach; vomiting blood which is highly
acid, violent purging, collapse, stupor,
death.
Oxalic acid is frequently taken in
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
mistake for Epsom salts, to which in
shops it often bears a strong resemblance.
Treatment: Give chalk or magnesia in a
large quantity of water, or large draughts
of limewater. If these are not at hand,
scrape the wall or ceiling, and give the
scrapings mixed with water.
Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid — Laurel
Water, Cyanide of Potassium, Bitter
Almond Oil, Etc. — Symptoms: In large
doses almost invariably instantaneously
fatal; when not immediately fatal, sud-
den loss of sense and control of the vol-
untary muscles. The odor of the poison
generally noticeable on the breath.
Treatment: Chlorine, in the form of
chlorine water, in doses of from 1 to 4
fluidrachms, diluted. Weak solution
of chloride lime of soda; water of am-
monia (spirits of hartshorn), largely
diluted, may be given, and the vapor of it
cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and
chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses
in glycerine or mucilage, repeated every
few minutes, until the symptoms are
ameliorated. Artificial respiration.
Aconite — Monkshood, Wolfsbane. —
Symptoms: Numbness and tingling in
the mouth and throat, and afterwards in
other portions of the body, with sore
throat, pain over the stomach, and vom-
iting; dimness of vision, dizziness, great
prostration, loss of sensibility, and de-
lirium. Treatment: An emetic and
then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in
ice water, every half hour ; spirits of
ammonia in half -teaspoonful doses in
like manner; the cold douche over the
head and chest, warmth to the extrem-
ities, etc.
Alkalis and Their Salts— Concen-
trated Lye, Wood-ash Lye, Caustic Pot-
ash, Ammonia, Hartshorn. — Symptoms:
Caustic, acrid taste, excessive heat in
the throat, stomach, and intestines;
vomiting of bloody matter, cold sweats,
hiccough, purging of bloody stools.
Treatment: The common vegetable
acids. Common vinegar, being always
at hand, is most frequently used. The
fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond,
and olive oils form soaps with the alka-
lis and thus also destroy their caustic
effect. They should be given in large
quantity.
Antimony and Its Preparations — Tar-
tar Emetic, Antimonial Wine, Kerme's
Mineral. — Symptoms : Faintness and
nausea, soon followed by painful and
continued vomiting, severe diarrhea,
constriction and burning sensation in
the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitch-
ings, with symptoms of nervous derange-
ment, and great prostration of strength,
often terminating in death. Treatment:
If vomiting has not been produced, it
should be effected by tickling the fauces,
and administering copious draughts of
warm water. Astringent infusions, such
as of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act
as antidotes, and should be given prompt-
ly. Powdered yellow bark may be used
until the infusion is prepared, or very
strong green tea should be given. To
stop the vomiting, should it continue,
blister over the stomach by applying a
cloth wet with strong spirits of hartshorn,
and then sprinkle on one-eighth to one-
fourth of a grain of morphia.
Arsenic and Its Preparations— Rats-
bane, Fowler's Solution, Etc. — Symp-
toms: Generally within an hour pain
and heat are felt in the stomach, soon
followed by vomiting, with a burning
dryness of the throat and great thirst;
the matters vomited are generally colored
either green yellow, or brown, and are
sometimes bloody. Diarrhea or dys-
entery ensues, while the pulse becomes
small and rapid, yet irregular. Breath-
ing much oppressed; difficulty in vom-
iting may occur, while cramps, convul-
sions, or even paralysis often precede
death, which sometimes takes place with-
in five or six hours after arsenic has been
taken. Treatment : Give a prompt
emetic, and then hydrate of peroxide of
iron (recently prepared) in tablespoon-
ful doses every 10 or 15 minutes until the
urgent symptoms are relieved. In the
absence of this, or while it is being pre-
pared, give large draughts of new milk
and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted
butter, magnesia in a large quantity of
water, or even if nothing else is at hand,
flour and water, always5> however, giv-
ing an emetic the first thing, or causing
vomiting by tickling the throat with a
feather, etc. The inflammation of the
stomach which follows must be treated
by blisters, hot fomentations, muci-
laginous drinks, and the like.
Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade.—
Symptoms: Dryness of the mouth and
throat, great thirst, difficulty of swal-
lowing, nausea, dimness, confusion or
loss of vision, great enlargement of the
pupils, dizziness, delirium, and coma.
Treatment: There is no known anti-
dote. Give a prompt emetic and then
reliance must be placed on continual
stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc.,
and to necessary artificial respiration.
Opium and its preparations, as morphia,
laudanum, etc., are thought by some to
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
counteract the effect of belladonna, and
may be given in small and repeated doses,
as also strong black coffee and green tea.
Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone.— See Cop-
per.
Cantharides (Spanish or Blistering
Fly) and Modern Potato Bug. — Symp-
toms: Sickening odor of the breath,
sour taste, with burning heat in the
throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent
vomiting, often bloody; copious bloody
stools, great pain in the stomach, with
burning sensation in the bladder and
difficulty to urinate followed with ter-
rible convulsions, delirium, and death.
Treatment: Excite vomiting by drinking
plentifully of sweet oil or other whole-
some oils, sugar and water, milk, or
slippery-elm tea; give injections of castor
oil and starch, or warm milk. The in-
flammatory symptoms which generally
follow must be treated by a physician.
Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits
should be rubbed over the bowels, stom-
ach, and thighs.
Caustic Potash. — See Alkalis under this
title.
Cobalt, or Fly Powder. — Symptoms:
Heat and pain in the throat and stomach,
violent retching and vomiting, cold and
clammy skin, small and feeble pulse,
hurried and difficult breathing, diar-
rhea, etc. Treatment: An emetic, fol-
lowed by the free administration of milk,
eggs, wheat flour and water, and muci-
laginous drinks.
Copper — Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or
Pickles or Food Cooked in Copper Ves-
sels.— Symptoms: General inflamma-
tion of the alimentary canal, suppres-
sion of urine; hiccough, a disagreeable
metallic taste, vomiting, violent colic,
excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the
throat, anxiety; faintness, giddiness,
and cramps and convulsions generally
precede death. Treatment : Large
doses of simple syrup as warm as can be
swallowed, until the stomach rejects the
amount it contains. The whites of eggs
and large quantities of milk. Hydrated
peroxide of iron.
Creosote — Carbolic Acid. — Symptoms :
Burning pain, acrid, pungent taste,
thirst, vomiting, purging, etc. Treat-
ment: An emetic and the free adminis-
tration of albumen, as the whites of eggs,
or, in the absence of these, milk, or flour
and water.
Corrosive Sublimate. — See Mercury
under this title.
Deadly Nightshade.— See Belladonna
under this title.
Foxglove, or Digitalis.— Symptoms:
Loss of strength, feeble, fluttering pulse,
faintness, nausea and vomiting and stu-
por ; cold perspiration, dilated pupils,
sighing, irregular breathing, and some-
times convulsions. Treatment: After
vomiting, give brandy and ammonia in
frequently repeated doses, apply warmth
to the extremities, and if necessary resort
to artificial respiration.
Gases — Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cy-
anogen, Hydrosulphuric Acid, Etc. —
Symptoms: Great drowsiness, difficult
respiration, features swollen, face blue
as in strangulation. Treatment: Arti-
ficial respiration, cold douche, friction
with stimulating substances to the sur-
face of the body. Inhalation of steam
containing preparations of ammonia.
Cupping from nape of neck. Internal
use of chloroform.
Hellebore, or Indian Poke. — Symp-
toms: Violent vomiting and purging,
bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors,
vertigo, fainting, sinking of the pulse,
cold sweats, and convulsions. Treat-
ment: Excite speedy vomiting by large
draughts of warm water, molasses and
water, tickling the throat with the finger
or a feather, and emetics; give oily and
mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives,
and clysters, acids, strong coffee, cam-
phor, and opium.
Hemlock (Conium). — Symptoms: Dry-
ness of the throat, tremors, dizziness,
difficulty of swallowing, prostration, and
faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed,
pupils dilated, pulse rapid and feeble;
insensibility and convulsions sometimes
precede death. Treatment: Empty the
stomach and give brandy in tablespoon-
ful doses, with half teaspoonful of spirits
of ammonia, frequently repeated, and
if much pain and vomiting, give bro-
mide of ammonium in 5-grain doses
every half hour. Artificial respiration
may be required.
Henbane, or Hyoscyamus. — Symp-
toms: Muscular twitching, inability to
articulate plainly, dimness of vision and
stupor; later, vomiting and purging,
small intermittent pulse, convulsive
movement of the extremities, and coma.
Treatment: Similar to opium poison-
ing, which see.
Iodine. — Symptoms: Burning pain in
throat, lacerating pain in the stomach,
fruitless effort to vomit, excessive ten-
derness of the epigastrium. Treatment:
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
95
Free emesis, prompt administration of
starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot, beaten
up in water.
Lead — Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead,
Dry White Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or
Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar Sweetened by
Lead. — Symptoms: When taken in large
doses, a sweet but astringent metallic
taste exists, with constriction in the
throat, pain in the region of the stomach,
painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody
vomitings, hiccough, convulsions or
spasms, and death. When taken in
small but long-continued doses it pro-
duces colic, called painters' colic; great
pain, obstinate constipation, and in ex-
treme cases paralytic symptoms, es-
pecially wrist-drop, with a blue line along
the edge of the gums. Treatment: To
counteract the poison give alum in water
li ounce to a quart; or, better still, Ep-
som salts or Glauber's salts, an ounce of
either in a quart of water; or dilute sul-
phuric acid, a teaspoonful to a quart of
water. If a large quantity of sugar of
lead has been recently taken, empty the
stomach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc
(1 drachm in a qur,rt oi water), giving
one-fourth to commence, and repeating
smaller doses until free vomiting is pro-
duced; castor oil should be given to clear
the bowels and injections of oil and
starch freely administered. If the body
is cold use the warm bath.
Meadow Saffron. — See Belladonna.
Laudanum. — See Opium.
Lobelia — Indian Poke. — Symptoms :
Excessive vomiting and purging, pains
in the bowels, contraction of the pupils,
delirium, coma, and convulsions. Treat-
ment: Mustard over the stomach, and
brandy and ammonia.
Mercury— Corrosive Sublimate (bug
poisons frequently contain this poison),
Red Precipitate, Chinese or English
Vermilion. — Symptoms: Acrid, metallic
taste in the mouth, immediate constric-
tion and burning in the throat, with anx-
iety and tearing pains in both stomach
and bowels, sickness, and vomiting of
various-colored fluids, and sometimes
bloody and profuse diarrhea, with dif-
ficulty and pain in urinating; pulse
quick, small, and hard; faint sensations,
great debility, difficult breathing, cramps,
cold sweats, syncope, and convulsions.
Treatment: If vomiting does not al-
ready exist, emetics must be given im-
mediately— white of eggs in continuous
large doses, and infusion of catechu after-
wards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and
water in successive cupfuls, and to check
excessive salivation put a half ounce of
chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water,
and use freely as a gargle, and swallow a
tablespoonful every hour or two.
Morphine. — See Opium.
Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic).—
Symptoms: Intense pain and vomiting,
and purging of blood, mucus, and shreds
of mucous membranes; and if these stand
they become dark. Treatment: Give
freely of a solution of common salt in
water, which decomposes the poison,
and afterwards flaxseed or slippery-elm-
bark tea, and after a while a dose of
castor oil.
Opium and All Its Compounds —
Morphine, Laudanum, Paregoric, Etc. —
Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness, in-
creasing to stupor., and insensibility;
pulse usually, at first, quick and ir-
regular, and breathing hurried, and
afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and
respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are
contracted and the eyes and face con-
gested, and later, as death approaches,
the extremities become cold, the surface
is covered with cold, clammy perspira-
tion, and the sphincters relax. The ef-
fects of opium and its preparations, in
poisonous doses, appear in from a half
to two hours from its administration.
Treatment: Empty the stomach imme-
diately with an emetic or with the stom-
ach pump. Then give very strong
coffee without milk; put mustard plasters
on the wrists and ankles; douche the head
and chest with cold water, and if the
patient is cold and sinking, give brandy,
or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is
thought by many to counteract the poi-
sonous effects of opium, and may be
given in doses of half to a teaspoonful of
the tincture, or 2 grains of the extract,
every 20 minutes, until some effect is
observed in causing the pupils to ex-
pand. Use warmth and friction, and
if possible prevent sleep for some hours,
for which purpose the patient should
be walked about between two persons.
Finally, as a last resort, use artificial
respiration, persistence in which will some-
times be rewarded with success in ap-
parently hopeless cases. Electricity should
also be tried.
Cooley advises as follows: Vomiting
must be .induced as soon as possible, by
means of a strong emetic and tickling the
fauces. If this does not succeed, the
stomach pump should be applied. The
emetic may consist of a half drachm of
sulphate of zinc dissolved in a half pint
of warm water, of which one-third should
96
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
be taken at once, and the remainder at
the rate of a wineglassful every 5 or 10
minutes, until vomiting commences.
When there is much drowsiness or stupor
1 or 2 fluidrachms of tincture of capsi-
cum will be found a useful addition; or
one of the formulas for emetic draughts
may be taken instead. Infusion of galls,
cinchona, or oak bark should be freely
administered before the emetic, and
water soured with vinegar and lemon
juice, after the stomach has been well
cleared out. To rouse the system
spirit and water or strong coffee may be
given. To keep the sufferer awake,
rough friction should be applied to the
skin, an upright posture preserved, and
walking exercise enforced, if necessary.
When this is ineffectual cold water may
be dashed over the chest, head, and
spine, or mild shocks of electricity may
be had recourse to. To allow the suffer-
er to sleep is to abandon him to destruc-
tion. Bleeding may be subsequently
necessary in plethoric habits, or in
threatened congestion. The costiveness
that accompanies convalescence may be
best met by aromatic aperients; and the
general tone of the habit restored by stim-
ulating tonics and the shower bath.
The smallest fatal dose of opium in the
case of an adult within our recollection
was 4 £ grains. Children are much more
susceptible to the action of opium 'than
of other medicines, and hence the dose of
it for them must be diminished consid-
erably below that indicated by the com-
mon method of calculation depending on
the age.
Oxalic Acid.— See Acids.
Phosphorus — Found in Lucifer
Matches and Some Rat Poisons. — Symp-
toms: Symptoms of irritant poisoning;
pain in tha stomach and bowels; vomit-
ing, diarrhea; tenderness and tension
of the abdomen. Treatment: An emetic
is to be promptly given; copious draughts
containing magnesia in suspension; mu-
cilaginous drinks. General treatment
for inflammatory symptoms.
Poisonous Mushrooms. — Symptoms:
Nausea, heat and pains in the stomach
and bowels; vomiting and purging,
thirst, convulsions, and faintings; pulse
small and frequent, dilated pupil and
stupor, cold sweats and death. Treat-
ment: The stomach and bowels are to be
cleared by an emetic of ground mustard
or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent
doses of Glauber's or of Epsom salts, and
large stimulating clysters. After the
poison is evacuated, either may be given
with small quantities of brandy and
water. But if inflammatory symptoms
manifest themselves such stimuli should
be avoided, and these symptoms appro-
priately treated. A hypodermic injection
of gV grain of atropine is the latest discovered
antidote.
Potash.— See Alkali.
Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid. — See
Acids.
Poison Ivy. — Symptoms: Contact
with, and with many persons the near
approach to, the vine gives rise to vio-
lent erysipelatous inflammation, espe-
cially of the face and hands, attended
with itching, redness, burning, and swell-
ing, with watery blisters. Treatment:
Give saline laxatives, and apply weak
sugar of lead and laudanum, or limewater
and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with
spirits of niter. Anointing with oil will
prevent poisoning from it.
Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash).— Symp-
toms: Only poisonous in large quanti-
ties, and then causes nausea, painful
vomiting, purging, convulsions, faint-
ness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands,
with tearing pains in stomach and bowels.
Treatment: Treat as is directed for
arsenic, for there is no antidote known,
and emptying the stomach and bowels
with mild drinks must be relied on.
Savine. — Symptoms: Sharp pains in
the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse, violent
vomiting and sometimes purging, with
great prostration. Treatment: Mus-
tard and hot fomentations over the
stomach and bowels and ice allowed
in the stomach only until the inflam-
mation ceases. If prostration comes on,
food and stimulants must be given by
injection.
Stramonium, Thorn Apple, or James-
town Weed. — Symptoms: Vertigo, head-
ache, perversion of vision, slight delir-
ium, sense of suffocation, disposition to
sleep, bowels relaxed, and all secretions
augmented. Treatment: Same as for
belladonna.
Snake Bites, Cure for. — The Inspector
of Police in the Bengal Government re-
ports that of 939 cases in which ammonia
was freely administered, 207 victims have
recovered, and in the cured instances the
remedy was not administered till about
3i hours after the attack; on the average
of the fatal cases the corresponding
duration of time was 44 hours.
Strychnine or Nux Vomica. — The char-
acteristic symptom is the special influ-
ence exerted upon the nervous system,
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
97
which is manifested by a general con-
traction of all the muscles of the body,
with rigidity of the spinal column. A
profound calm soon succeeds, which is
followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer
than the first, during which the respira-
tion is suspended. These symptoms
then cease, the breathing becomes easy,
and there is stupor, followed by another
general contraction. In fatal cases
these attacks are renewed, at intervals,
with increasing violence, until death en-
sues. One phenomenon which is found
only in poisonings by substances con-
taining strychnine is that touching any
part of the body, or even threatening
to do so, instantly produces the tetanic
spasm. Antidote: The stomach should
be immediately cleared by means of an
emetic, tickling the fauces, etc. To
counteract the asphyxia from tetanus,
etc., artificial respiration should be
practiced with diligence and care. "If
the poison has been applied externally,
we ought immediately to cauterize the
part, and apply a ligature tightly above
the wound. If the poison has been
swallowed for some time we shouH give
a purgative clyster, and administer
draughts containing sulphuric ether or
oil of turpentine, which in most cases
produce a salutary effect. Lastly, in-
jections of chlorine and decoction of
tannin are of value."
According to Ch. Gunther the great-
est reliance may be placed on full doses
of opium, assisted by venesection, in
cases of poisoning by strychnia or nux
vomica. His plan is to administer this
drug in the form of solution or mix-
ture, in combination with a saline ape-
rient.
Another treatment is to give, if obtain-
able, 1 ounce or more of bone charcoal
mixed with water, and follow with an
active emetic; then to give chloroform in
teaspoonful doses, in flour and water or
glycerine, every few minutes while the
spasms last, and afterwards brandy and
stimulants, and warmth of the extremi-
ties if necessary. Recoveries have fol-
lowed the free and prompt administra-
tion of oils or melted butter or lard. ^ In
all cases empty the stomach if possible.
Sulphate of Zinc— White Vitriol.— See
Zinc.
Tin— Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin
(used by dyers), Oxide of Tin, or Putty
Powder. — Symptoms: Vomiting, pains
in the stomach, anxiety, restlessness, fre-
quent pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment:
Empty the stomach, and give whites of
eggs in water, milk in large quantities,
or flour beaten up in water, with mag-
nesia or chalk.
Tartar Emetic. — See Antimony.
Tobacco. — Symptoms: Vertigo, stu-
por, fainting, nausea, vomiting, sudden
nervous debility, cold sweat, tremors,
and at times fatal prostration. Treat-
ment: After the stomach is empty apply
mustard to the abdomen and to the ex-
tremities, and give strong coffee, with
brandy and other stimulants, with
warmth to the extremities.
Zinc— Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of
Zinc, White Vitriol, Acetate of Zinc.—
Symptoms: Violent vomiting, astrin-
gent taste, burning pain in the stomach,
pale countenance, cold extremities, dull
eyes, fluttering pulse. Death seldom
ensues, in consequence of the emetic
effect. Treatment: The vomiting may
be relieved by copious draughts of warm
water. Carbonate of soda, administered
in solution, will decompose the sulphate
of zinc. Milk and albumen will also act
as antidotes. General principles to be
observed in the subsequent treatment.
Woorara. — Symptoms: When taken
into the stomach it is inert; when ab-
sorbed through a wound it causes sudden
stupor and insensibility, frothing at the
mouth, and speedy death. Treatment:
Suck the wound immediately, or cut it
out and tie a cord around the limb be-
tween the wound and the heart. Apply
iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it
internally, and try artificial respiration.
ANTIFERMENTS.
The following are tried and useful
formulas:
I. — Sulphite (not sulphate) of lime,
in fine powder, 1 part; marble dust,
ground oyster shells, or chalk, 7 parts;
mix, and pack tight, so as to exclude the
air.
II. — Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa,
1 part; new black-mustard seed (ground
in a pepper mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack
so as to exclude air and moisture per-
fectly. Dose (of either), | ounce to 1^
ounces per hogshead.
III. — Mustard seed, 14 pounds; cloves
and capsicum, of each, 1| pounds; mix,
and grind them to powder in a pep-
per mill. Dose, f to ^ pound per hogs-
head.
A portion of any one of these compounds
added to cider, or the like, soon allays
fermentation, when excessive, or when
it has been renewed. The first formula
is preferred when there is a tendency to
acidity. The second and third may be
advantageously used for wine and beer, as
98
ANTISEPTICS
well as for cider. The third compound
greatly improves the flavor and the ap-
parent strength of the liquor, and also
improves its keeping qualities.
Anchovy Preparations
Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce. —
Anchovies, chopped
small 3 or 4
Butter 3 ounces
Water 2 ounces
Vinegar 1 ounce
Flour 1 ounce
Mix, place over the fire, and stir until
the mixture thickens. Then rub through
a coarse sieve.
Essence of Anchovies. — Remove the
bones from 1 pound of anchovies, reduce
the remaining portions of the fish to a
pulp in a Wedgewood mortar, and pass
through a clean hair or brass sieve. Boil
the bones and other portions which will
not pass through the sieve in 1 pint of
water for 15 minutes, and strain. To
the strained liquor add 2£ ounces of salt
and 2* ounces of flour, and the pulped
anchovies. Let the whole simmer over
the fire for three or four minutes; re-
move from the fire, and when the mix-
ture has cooled a little add 4 ounces of
strong vinegar. The product (nearly
3 pounds) may be then bottled, and the
corks tied over with bladder, and either
waxed or capsuled.
Anchovy Paste. —
Anchovies 7 pounds
Water 9 pints
Salt 1 pound
Flour 1 pound
Capsicum J ounce
Grated lemon peel. . . 1
Mushroom catsup. . . 4 ounces
Anchovy Butter. —
Anchovies, boned and
beaten to a paste . . 1 part
Butter 2 parts
Spice enough
ANTIFOULING COMPOSITIONS :
See Paints.
ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION :
See Freezing Preventives.
ANTIFRICTION METAL :
See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze
and Antifriction Metals.
ANTIQUES, TO PRESERVE.
The best process for the preservation
of antique metallic articles consists in a
retransformation of the metallic oxides
into metal by the electrolytic method.
For this purpose a zinc strip is wound
around the article and the latter is laid
in a soda-lye solution of 5 per cent, or
suspended as the negative pole of a small
battery in a potassium cyanide solution
of 2 per cent. Where this method does
not seem practicable it is advisable to
edulcorate the objects in running water,
in which operation fragile or easily de-
stroyed articles may be protected by
winding with gauze; next, they should
be carefully dried, first in the air, then
with moderate heat, and finally protected
from further destruction by immersion
in melted paraffiiie. A dry place is re-
quired for storing the articles, since par-
affine is not perfectly impermeable to
water in the shape of steam.
ANTIRUST COMPOSITIONS:
See Rust Preventives.
Antiseptics
Antiseptic Powders. —
I. — Borax 3 ounces
Dried alum 3 ounces
Thymol 22 grains
Eucalyptol 20 drops
Menthol 1£ grains
Phenol 15 grains
Oil of gaultheria ... 4 drops
Carmine to give a pink tint.
II. — Alum, powdered - . 5(H ^
Borax, powdered 50 3
Carbolic acid, crystals ... 5 | £,
Oil of eucalyptus 5 V<<
Oil of wintergreen 5 |
Menthol . . 5 '«'
Thymol
J
III. — Boracic acid 10 ounces
Sodium biborate. . 4 ounces
Alum 1 ounce
Zinc sulphocarbolate 1 ounce
Thymic acid 1 drachm.
Mix thoroughly. For an antiseptic
wash dissolve 1 or 2 drachms in a quart
of warm wa.ter.
IV. — Ektogan is a new dusting powder
which is a mixture of zinc hydroxide and
dioxide. It is equivalent to about 8 per
cent of active oxygen. It is a yellowish-
white odorless and tasteless powder, in-
soluble in water. It is used externally in
wounds and in skin diseases as a moist
dressing mixed with citric, tartaric, or
ANTISEPTICS
99
.
tannic acid, which causes the liberation
of oxygen. With iodides it liberates
iodine. It is stated to be strongly anti-
septic; it is used in the form of a powder,
a gauze, and a plaster.
Antiseptic Pencils. —
I. — Tannin q. s.
Alcohol, q. s 1 part
Ether, q. s 3 parts
Make into a mass, using as an excip-
ient the alcohol and ether previously
mixed. Roll into pencils of the desired
length and thickness. Then coat with
collodion, roll in pure silver leaf, and
finally coat with the following solution of
gelatine and set aside to dry:
Gelatine 1 drachm
Water 1 pint
Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.
When wanted for use, shave away a
portion of the covering, dip the pencil
into tepid water and apply.
II. — Pencils for stopping bleeding are
prepared by mixing:
Purified alum 480 1
Borax 24
Oxide zinc 2i
Thymol 8
Formalin 4
Melting carefully in a water bath, add-
ing some perfume, and forming mixture
into pencils or cones.
A very convenient way to form into
pencils where no mold need be made is
to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of
oil paper around the tube, remove the
glass tube, crimp the paper tube thus
formed on one end and stand it on end
or in a bottle, and pour the melted so-
lution in it and leave until cool, then re-
move the paper.
Antiseptic Paste (Poison) for Organic
Specimens. —
(a) Wheat flour 16 ounces
Beat to a batter with
cold water 16 fluidounces
Then pour into boil-
ing water 32 fluidounces
(6) Pulverized gum ar-
abic 2 ounces
Dissolve in boil-
ing water. ...... 4 fluidounces
<£) Pulverized alum. .. 2 ounces
Dissolve in boil-
ing water 4 fluidounces
(d) Acetate of lead .... 2 ounces
Dissolve in boil-
ing water 4 fluidounces
(e) Corrosive sublimate 10 grains
Mix (a) and (6) while hot and continue
to simmer; meanwhile stir in (r) -and
mix thoroughly; then add (d). Stir
briskly, and pour in the dry corrosive
sublimate. This paste is very poison-
ous. It is used for anatomical work and
for pasting organic tissue, labels on skel-
etons, etc.
Mouth Antiseptics.— I.— Thymic acid,
25 centigrams (3£ grains): benzoic acid,
3 grams (45 grains); essence of pep-
permint, 75 centigrams (10 minims);
tincture of eucalyptus, 15 grams (4 A
drachms) ; alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces).
Put sufficient in a glass of water to render
latter milky.
II. — Tannin, 12 grams (3 drachms);
menthol, 8 grams (2 drachms); thymol,
1 gram (15 grains); tincture benzoin, 6
grams (90 minims); alcohol, 100 grams
(3 ounces). Ten drops in a half-glassful
of tepid water.
See also Dentifrices for Mouth
Washes.
Antiseptic Paste.— Difficulty is often
experienced in applying an antiseptic
dressing to moist surfaces, such as the
lips after operation for harelip. A paste
for this purpose is described by its origi-
nator, Socin. The composition is: Zinc
oxide, 50 parts; zinc chloride, 5 parts;
distilled water, 50 parts. The paste is
applied to the wound, previously dried
by means of a brush or spatula, allowed
to dry on, and to remain in place five or
six days. It may then be removed and
a fresh application made.
Potassium bicar-
bonate 32.0 grams
Sodium benzoate . . 32.0 grams
Sodium borate 8.0 grams
Thymol 0.2 gram
Eucalyptol 2.0 c. cent.
Oil of peppermint.. 0.2 c. cent.
Oil of wintergreen. . 0.4 c. cent.
Tincture of cudbear 15.0 c. cent.
Alcohol 60.0 c. cent.
Glycerine 250.0 c. cent.
Water, enough to
make 1,000.0 c. centimeters
Dissolve the salts in 650 cubic centi-
meters of water, and t>he thymol, eucalyp-
tol, and oils in the alcohol. Mix the
alcoholic solution with the glycerine and
add the aqueous liquid, then the tincture
of cudbear, and lastly enough water to
make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Allow
to stand a few days, then filter, adding a
little magnesium carbonate to the filter,
if necessary, to get a brilliant filtrate.
This is from the Formulary of the
Bournemouth Pharmaceutical Associa-
tion, as reported in the Canadian Phar-
maceutical Association:
100
ANTISEPTICS
Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol. —
Sodium bicarbonate. . 100 grains
Sodium biborate 200 grains
Sodium benzoate 80 grains
Sodium salicylate .... 40 grains
Menthol 2 grains
Pumilio pine oil 4 minims
Wintergreen oil 2 minims
Thymol 4 grains
Eucalyptol 12 minims
Compound Solution of Thymol. —
A
Benzoic acid 64 grains
Borax 64 grains
Boric acid 128 grains
Distilled water 6 ounces
Dissolve.
B
Thymol 20 grains
Menthol 6 grains
Eucalyptol 4 minims
Oil of wintergreen. ... 4 minims
Oil of peppermint. ... 2 minims
Oil of thyme 1 minim
Alcohol (90 per cent) . 3 ounces
Dissolve.
Mix solutions A and B, make up to
20 fluidounces with distilled water, and
filter.
Oil of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic. —
Oil of cinnamon in a 9-per-cent emulsion,
when used upon the hands, completely
sterilizes them. A 7-to 8-per-cent emul-
sion is equal to a 1-per-cent solution of
corrosive sublimate and is certainly far
more agreeable to use. Oil of thyme in
an 11-per-cent solution is equal to a 7-per-
cent solution of cinnamon oil.
Green Coloring for Antiseptic Solu-
tions.— The safest coloring substance for
use in a preparation intended either for
internal administration or for applica-
tion to the skin is the coloring matter of
leaves, chlorophyll. A tincture of spin-
ach or of grass made by macerating 2
ounces of the freshly cut leaves in a pint
of alcohol for five days will be found to
give good results. If the pure coloring
substance is wanted the solvent should
be evaporated off.
Antiseptic Bromine Solution. —
Bromine 1 ounce
Sodium chloride 8 ounces
Water 8 pints
Dissolve the sodium chloride in the
water and add the bromine. This solu-
tion is to be diluted, when applied to
broken skin surfaces, 1 part with 15
parts of water.
Substitute for Rubber Gloves.— Mur-
phy has found that a 4-, 6-, or 8-per-cent
solution of gutta-percha in benzine, when
applied to the hands of the surgeon or
the skin of the patient, will seal these
surfaces with an insoluble, impervious,
and practically imperceptible coating —
a coating that will not allow the secre-
tions of the skin to escape, and will not
admit secretions, blood, or pus into the
crevices of the skin. At the same time
it does not impair the sense of touch nor
the pliability of the skin. A similar solu-
tion in acetone also meets most of the
requirements.
Murphy's routine method of hand prep-
aration is as follows: First, five to seven
minutes' scrubbing with spirits of green
soap and running hot water; second,
three minutes' washing with alcohol;
third, when the hands are thoroughly
dried, the gutta-percha solution is poured
over the hands and forearms, care being
taken to fill in around and beneath the
nails. The hands must be kept exposed
to the air with the fingers separated until
thoroughly dry. The coating is very
thin and can be recognized only by its
glazed appearance. It will resist soap
and water, but is easily removed by wash-
ing in benzine. The hands can be
washed in bichloride or any of the anti-
septic solutions without interfering with
the coating or affecting the skin. If
the operations be many, or prolonged,
the coating wears away from the tips
of the fingers, but is easily renewed. For
the remaining portion of the hands one
application is sufficient for a whole morn-
ing's work.
The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears
better on the tips of the fingers, in han-
dling instruments, sponges, and tissues
than the acetone solution.
For the abdomen the acetone solution
has the advantage, and it dries in three
to four seconds after its application,
while the benzine solution takes from
three to four and a half minutes to make
a dry, firm coating.
The preparation of the patient's skin
consists in five minutes' scrubbing with
spirits of green soap, washing with ether,
followed by alcohol. The surface is then
swabbed over thoroughly with the ben-
zine or acetone solution.
The gutta-percha solution is prepared
by dissolving the pure gutta-percha chips
in sterile benzine or acetone. These
solutions do not stand boiling, as this
impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of
the coating.
ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS:
See Veterinary Formulas.
ANTISEPTICS
101
APOLLINARIS :
See Waters.
APPLE SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
AQUA FORTIS FOR BRIGHT LUS-
TER:
See Castings.
AQUA FORTIS FOR THE TOUCH-
STONE :
See Gold.
AQUARIUM CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
AQUARIUM PUTTY:
See Putty.
ARGENTAN :
See Alloys.
ARMENIAN CEMENT:
See Adhesives under Jewelers' Ce-
ments.
ARMS, OIL FOR :
See Lubricants.
ARNICA SALVE :
See Ointments.
ARSENIC ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
ASBESTOS CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
ASBESTOS FABRIC :
See Fireproofing.
ASPHALT AS AN INGREDIENT OF
INDIA RUBBER:
See Rubber.
ASPHALT IN PAINTING:
See Paint.
ASPHALT VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
ASSAYING:
See Gold.
ASTHMA CUKES.— Asthma Papers.—
I. — Impregnate bibulous paper with the
following: Extract of stramonium, 10;
potassium nitrate, 17; sugar, 20; warm
water, 200 parts. Dry.
II. — Blotting or gray filter paper, 120;
potassium nitrate, 60; powdered bella-
donna leaves, 5; powdered stramonium
leaves, 5; powdered digitalis leaves, 5;
powdered lobelia, 5; myrrh, 10; oli-
banum, 10; phellandrium fruits, 5 parts.
Stramonium Candle. — Powdered stra-
monium leaves, 120; potassium nitrate,
72; Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar,
1; powdered tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water,
q. s. to mass; roll into suitable shapes
and dry.)
deary's Asthma Fumigating Fowder.
— Powdered stramonium, 15; powdered
belladonna leaves, 15; powdered opium,
2; potassium nitrate, 5.
Asthma Fumigating Powders. — I. —
Powdered stramonium leaves, 4; pow-
dered aniseed, 2; potassium nitrate, 2
parts.
II. — Powdered stramonium, 30; potas-
sium nitrate, 5; powdered tea, 15; pow-
dered eucalyptus leaves, 15; powdered
Indian hemp, 15; powdered lobelia, 15;
powdered aniseed, 2; distilled water, 45
parts. (All the herbal ingredients in
coarse powder; moisten with the water in
which the potassium nitrate has been
previously dissolved, and dry.)
Schiffmann's Asthma Powder. — Potas-
sium nitrate, 25; stramonium, 70; bella-
donna leaves, 5 parts.
Neumeyer's Asthma Powder. — Potas-
sium nitrate, 6 parts; sugar, 4; stramo-
nium, 6; powdered lobelia, 1.
Fischer's Asthma Powder. — Stramo-
nium, 5 parts ; potassium nitrate, 1 ; pow-
dered Achillea millefolium leaves, 1.
Vorlaender's Asthma Powder. — Stra-
monium, 150; lobelia, 80; arnica flowers,
80; potassium nitrate, 30; potassium
iodide, 3; naphthol, 1,100 parts.
Asthma Cigarettes. — I. — Belladonna
leaves, 5 parts; stramonium leaves, 5
parts; digitalis leaves, 5 parts; sage
leaves, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 75
parts; tincture of benzoin, 40 parts; boil-
ing water, 1,000 parts. Extract the
leaves with the boiling writer, filter, and
in the filtrate dissolve the salts. Im-
merse in the fluid sheets of bibulous
paper (Swedish filter paper will an-
swer) and let remain for 24 hours. At
the end of this time remove, dry, cut into
pieces about 2f by 4 inches, and roll into
cigarettes.
II. — Sodium arseniate, 3 grains; ex-
tract of belladonna, 8 grains; extract of
stramonium, 8 grains. Dissolve the ar-
seniate of sodium in a small quantity of
water, and rub it with the two extracts.
Then soak up the whole mixture with
fine blotting paper, which is dried and
cut into 24 equal parts. Each part is
rolled up in a piece of cigarette paper.
Four or five inhalations are generally
sufficient as a dose.
ASTHMA IN CANARIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
ASTRINGENT FOR HORSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
ATOMIC WEIGHTS:
See Weights and Measures.
102
BAKING POWDERS
ATRjOPINE,,
The usual physiological antidotes to
the mydriatic alkaloids from belladonna,
stramonium, and hyoscyamus are mor-
phine or eserine. Strong tea, coffee, or
brandy are usually administered as stim-
ulants. Chief reliance has usually been
placed upon a stomach siphon and
plenty of water to wash out the contents
of the stomach. The best antidote ever
reported was that of muscarine extracted
by alcohol from the mushroom, Amanita
muscaria, but the difficulty of securing
the same has caused it to be overlooked
and almost forgotten. Experiments
with this antidote showed it to be an al-
most perfect opposite of atropine in its
effects upon the animal body and that
it neutralized poisonous doses.
AQUA AROMATIC A.—
Cort. cinnam. chinens. 3 parts
Flor. lavandulae 5 parts
Fol. Menth. pip 5 parts
Fol. rosmarini 5 parts
Fol. salvise 10 parts
Fruct. fceniculi 3 parts
Spiritus 70 parts
Aqua 300 parts
Macerate the drugs in the mixed al-
cohol and water for 24 hours and distill
200 parts.
AQUA REGIA. — Aqua regia consists
in principle of 2 parts of hydrochloric acid
and 1 part of nitric acid. But this quan-
tity varies according to the shop where it
is used for gilding or jewelry, and some-
times the proportion is brought to 4 parts
of hydrochloric acid to 1 of nitric acid.
AUTOMOBILES, ANTIFREEZING SO-
LUTION FOR:
See Freezing Preventives.
AXLE GREASE:
See Lubricants.
BABBITT METAL:
See Alloys.
Baking Powders
I. — Tartaric acid, 3 parts; sodium
bicarbonate, 1 part; starch, 0.75 part.
Of this baking powder the required
amount for 500 parts of flour is about
20 parts for rich cake, and 15 parts for
lean cake.
The substances employed must be
dry, each having been previously sifted
by itself, so that no coarse pieces are
present; the starch is mixed with the
sodium bicarbonate before the acid is
added. When large quantities are pre-
pared the mixing is done by machine;
smaller quantities are best mixed to-
gether in a spacious mortar, and then
passed repeatedly through a sieve. In-
stead of starch, flour may be used, but
starch is preferable, because it inter-
feres with the action of the acid on the
alkali.
II. — A formula proposed by Cramp-
ton, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, as the result of an investi-
gation of the leading baking powders of
the market, is:
Potassium bitartrate. . . 2 parts
Sodium bicarbonate. .. 1 part
Cornstarch 1 part
The addition of the starch serves the
double purpose of a " filler" to increase
the weight of the powder and as a pre-
servative. A mixture of the chemicals
alone does not keep well.
The stability of the preparation is in-
creased by drying each ingredient sepa-
rately by exposure to a gentle heat, mixing
at once, and immediately placing in bot-
tles or cans and excluding access of air
and consequently of moisture.
This is not a cheap powder; but it is
the best that can be made, as to health-
fulness.
III. — Sodium acid phos-
phate 20 parts
Calcium acid phos-
phate 20 parts
Sodium bicarbonate 25 parts
Starch 35 parts
Caution as to drying the ingredients
and keeping them dry muse be observed.
Even the mixing should be done in a
room free from excessive humidity.
IV.— Alum Baking Powder.—
Ammonium alum,
anhydrous 15 parts
Sodium bicarbonate 18 parts
Cornstarch, q. s. to make 100 parts.
Mix. The available carbon dioxide
yielded is 7J per cent or 8 per cent.
BALANCE SPRING:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
BALDNESS :
See Hair Preparations.
BALL BLUE:
See Laundry Preparations.
BALSAMS :
See also Ointments.
• BALSAMS
103
Wild-Cherry Balsam.—
Wild-cherry bark. . 1 ounce
Licorice root 1 ounce
Ipecac 1 ounce
Bloodroot 1 drachm
Sassafras 1 drachm
Compound tincture
of opium 1 fluidounce
Fluid extract of
cubeb 4 fluidrachms
Moisten the ground drugs with the
fluid extract and tincture and enough
menstruum consisting of 25 per cent
alcohol, and after six or eight hours pack
in a percolator, and pour on menstruum
until percolation begins. Then cork the
orifice, cover the percolator, and allow to
macerate for 24 hours. Then percolate
to 10 fluidounces, pouring back the first
portion of percolate until it comes through
clear. In the percolate dissolve £ ounce
of ammonium chloride and A pound of
sugar by cold percolation, adding simple
syrup to make 16 fluidounces. Finally
add 1 fluidrachm of chloroform.
Balsam Spray Solution. —
Oil of Scotch pine. . . 30 minims
Oil of eucalyptus 1 drachm
Oil of cinnamon .... 30 minims
Menthol crystals. ... q. s.
Fluid extract of balm-
of-Gilead buds ... 1 drachm
Tincture of benzoin,
enough to make . . 4 ounces
This formula can, of course, be modi-
fied to suit your requirements. The oils
of eucalyptus and cinnamon can be omit-
ted and such quantities of tincture of
tolu and tincture of myrrh incorporated
as may be desired.
Birch Balsam. —
Parts by
weight
Alcohol 30,000
Birch juice 3,000
Glycerine 1,000
Bergamot oil 90
Vanillin.... 10
Geranium oil 50
Water 14,000
BALSAM STAINS, TO REMOVE :
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BANANA BRONZING SOLUTION:
See Plating.
BANANA SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
BANANA TRICK, THE BURNING:
See Pyrotechnics.
BANJO SOUR:
See Beverages under Lemonade.
BAR POLISHES :
See Polishes.
BARBERS'-ITCH CURE:
See Ointments.
BARBERS' POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
BAROMETERS (PAPER):
See Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.
BATH, AIR:
See Air Bath.
BATH METAL:
See Alloys.
BATH POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
BATH TABLETS, EFFERVESCENT.
Tartaric acid 10 parts
Sodium bicarbonate. . 9 parts
Rice flour 6 parts
A few spoonfuls of this, when stirred
into a bathtubful of water, causes a co-
pious liberation of carbon dioxide, which
is refreshing. This mixture can be made
into tablets by compression, moistening,
if necessary, with alcohol. Water, of
course, cannot be used in making them,
as its presence causes the decomposition
referred to. Perfume may be added to
this powder, essential oils being a good
form. Oil of lavender would be a suit-
able addition, in the proportion of a
fluidrachm or more to the pound of
powder. A better but more expensive
perfume may be obtained by mixing 1
part of oil of rose geranium with 6 parts
of oil of lavender. A perfume still more
desirable may be had by adding a mix-
ture of the oils from which Cologne water
is made. For an ordinary quality the
following will suffice:
Oil of lavender . . 4 fluidrachms
Oil of rosemary. . 4 fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot. . 1 fluidounce
Oil of lemon 2 fluidounces
Oil of clove 30 minims
For the first quality the following may
be taken:
Oil of neroli 6 fluidrachms
Oil of rosemary. . 3 fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot.. 3 fluidrachms
Oilofcedrat 7 fluidrachms
Oil of orange peel 7 fluidrachms
A fluidrachm or more of either of these
mixtures may be used to the pound, as in
the case of lavender.
These mixtures may also be used in the
preparation of a bath powder (non-effer-
104
BATTERY FILLERS
vescent) made by mixing equal parts of
powdered soap and powdered borax.
BATH-TUB ENAMEL :
See Varnishes.
BATH-TUB PAINTS:
See Paint.
BATTERY FILLERS AND SOLUTIONS.
I. — In the so-called dry batteries the
exciting substance is a paste instead of
a fluid; moisture is necessary to cause
the reaction. These pastes are gener-
ally secret preparations. One of the
earlier "dry" batteries is that of Gassner.
The apparatus consists of a containing
vessel of zinc, which forms the positive
element; the negative one is a cylinder
of carbon, and the space between is
filled with a paste, the recipe for which is:
Oxide of zinc 1 part
Sal ammoniac 1 part
Plaster 3 parts
Chloride of zinc 1 part
Water 2 parts
The usual form of chloride-of-silyer
battery consists of a sealed cell contain-
ing a zinc electrode, the two being gen-
erally separated by some form of porous
septum. Around the platinum or silver
electrode is cast a quantity of silver
chloride. This is melted and general-
ly poured into molds surrounding the
metallic electrode. The exciting fluid
is either a solution of ammonium chlo-
ride, caustic potassa, or soda, or zinc
sulphate. As ordinarily constructed,
these cells contain a paste of the electro-
lyte, and are sealed up hermetically in
glass or hard-rubber receptacles.
II. — The following formula is said to
yield a serviceable filling for dry batteries:
Charcoal 3 ounces
Graphite 1 ounce
Manganese dioxide. .. 3 ounces
Calcium hydrate 1 ounce
Arsenic acid 1 ounce
Glucose mixed with
dextrine or starch . . 1 ounce
Intimately mix, and then work into a
paste of proper consistency with a sat-
urated solution of sodium and ammo-
nium chlorides containing one-tenth of
its volume of a mercury-bichloride solu-
tion and an equal volume of hydrochloric
acid. Add the fluid gradually, and well
work up the mass.
III. — Calcium chloride,
crystallized 30 parts
Calcium chloride,
granulated 30 parts
Ammonium sulphate 15 parts
Zinc sulphate 25 parts
Solutions for Batteries. — The almost
exclusively employed solution of sal am-
moniac (ammonium chloride) presents
the drawback that the zinc rods, glasses,
etc., after a short use, become covered
with a fine, yellow, very difficultly sol-
uble, basic zinc salt, whereby the gen-
eration of the electric current is impaired,
and finally arrested altogether. This
evil may be remedied by an admixture of
cane sugar. For a battery of ordinary
size about 20 to 25 grams of sugar, dis-
solved in warm water, is sufficient per
50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac/ After
prolonged use only large crystals (of a
zinc saccharate) form, which, however,
become attached only to the zinc rod in
a few places, having very little disad-
vantageous effect upon the action of the
batteries and being easy to remove, owing
to their ready solubility.
BAUDOIN METAL:
See Alloys.
BAY RUM.
I. — Oil of bay 1 drachm
Alcohol 18 ounces
Water 18 ounces
Mix and filter through magnesia.
II. — Bay-leaf otto A ounce
Magnesium carbonate. ^ ounce
Jamaica rum 2 pints
Alcohol 3 pints
Water 3 pints
Triturate the otto with the magnesium
carbonate, gradually adding the other
ingredients, previously mixed, and filter.
If the rum employed contains sufficient
sugar or mucilaginous matter to cause
any stickiness to be felt on the skin, rec-
tification will be necessary.
BEAR FAT:
See Fats.
BEARING LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
BEARING METAL:
See Babbitt Metal, Bearing Metal, and
Phosphor Bronze, under Alloys.
BEDBUG DESTROYERS:
See Insecticides.
BEEF, IRON. AND WINE.
Extract of beef .... 512 grains
Detannated sherry
wine 26 ounces
Alcohol 4 ounces
Citrate of iron and
ammonia 256 grains
Simple sirup 12 ounces
BELT PASTES
105
Tincture of orange . 2 ounces
Tincture of carda-
mom co 1 ounce
Citric acid 10 grains
Water, enough to make 4 pints
Let stand 24 hours, agitate frequently,
and filter. See that the orange is fresh.
BEEF PEPTONOIDS:
See Peptonoids.
BEEF PRESERVATIVES:
See Foods.
BEEF TEA:
See Beverages.
BEERS, ALCOHOL IN :
See Alcohol.
BEER, GINGER, HOP-BITTER,
SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE :
See Beverages.
BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED.
I. — Powdered chalk is poured into the
cask and allowed to remain in the beer
until completely precipitated.
II. — The liquor of boiled raisins may
be poured into the beer, with the result
that the sour taste of the beer is disguised.
III. — A small quantity of a solution of
potash will remove the sour taste of
beer. Too much potash must not be
added; otherwise the stomach will suffer.
Beer thus restored will not keep long.
IV. — If the beer is not completely
spoiled it may be restored by the addi-
tion of coarsely powdered charcoal.
V. — If the addition of any of the above-
mentioned substances should affect the
taste of the beer, a little powdered zingi-
ber may be used to advantage. Syrup
or molasses may also be employed.
BEES, FOUL BROOD IN.
"Foul brood" is a contagious disease
to which bees are subject. It is caused
by bacteria and its presence may be
known by the bees becoming languid.
Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are
found in the bottom of the cells, while
the caps are sunken or irregularly punc-
tured. Frequently the disease is said to
be accompanied by a peculiar offensive
odor. Prompt removal of diseased col-
onies, their transfer to clean and thor-
oughly disinfected hives, and feeding on
antiseptically treated honey or syrup are
the means taken for the prevention and
cure of the disease. The antiseptics
used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, or
formic acid. Spraying the brood with
any one of these remedies in a solution
and feeding with a honey or syrup medi-
cated with them will usually be all that
is required by way of treatment. It is
also said that access to salt water is im-
portant for the health of bees.
BEETLE POWDER:
See Insecticides.
BELL METAL:
See Alloys.
BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO:
See Antidotes and Atropine.
BELT PASTES FOR INCREASING
ADHESION.
I.— Tallow. 50 parts
Castor oil, crude. ... 20 parts
Fish oil 20 parts
Colophony 10 parts
Melt on a moderate fire and stir until
the mass cools.
II.— Melt 250 parts of gum elastic
with 250 parts of oil of turpentine in an
iron, well-closed crucible at 122° F.
(caution!) and mix well with 200 parts of
colophony. After further melting add
200 parts of yellow wax and stir carefully.
Melt in 750 parts of heated train oil,
250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with
constant stirring, the first mixture when
the latter is still warm, and let cool slowly
with stirring. This grease is intended
for cotton belts.
III. — Gutta-percha 40 parts
Rosin 10 parts
Asphalt 15 parts
Petroleum 60 parts
Heat in a glass vessel on the water
bath for a few hours, until a uniform so-
lution is obtained. Let cool and add 15
parts of carbon disulphide and allow the
mixture to stand, shaking it frequently.
Directions for Use. — The leather belts
to be cemented should first be roughened
at the joints, and after the cement has
been applied they should be subjected
to a strong pressure between warm
rollers, whereupon they will adhere to-
gether with much tenacity.
Preservation of Belts. — In a well-cov-
ered iron vessel heat at a temperature of
50° C. (152° F.) 1 part by weight of
caoutchouc, cut in small pieces, with 1
part by weight of rectified turpentine.
When the caoutchouc is dissolved add
0.8 part of colophony, stir until this is
dissolved, and add to the mixture 0.1
part of yellow wax. Into another vessel
of suitable size pour 3 parts of fish oil,
add 1 part of tallow, and heat the mixture
until the tallow is melted; then pour on
the contents of the first vessel, con-
stantly stirring — an operation to be con-
tinued until the matter is cooled and
congealed. This grease is to be rubbed
106
BENZINE
on the inside of the belts from time to
time, while they are in use. The belts
run easily and do not slip. The grease
may also serve for improving old belts.
For this purpose the grease should be
rubbed on both sides in a warm place.
A first layer is allowed to soak in, and
another applied.
To Make a Belt Pull.— Hold a piece of
tar soap on the inside of the belt while it
is running.
BELT CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
BELT GLUE:
See Adhesives.
BELT LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
BENEDICTINE:
See Wines and Liquors.
Benzine
Benzine, to Color Green. — Probably
the simplest and cheapest as well as the
best method of coloring benzine green is
to dissolve in it sufficient oil soluble aniline
green of the desired tint to give the re-
quired shade.
Purification of Benzine. — Ill-smelling
benzine, mixed with about 1 to 2 per cent
of its weight of free fatty acid, will dis-
solve therein. One-fourth per cent of
tannin is added and all is mixed well.
Enough potash or soda lye, or even lime
milk, is added until the fatty acids are
saponified, and the tannic acid is neu-
tralized, shaking repeatedly. After a
while the milky liquid separates into two
layers, viz., a salty, soapy, mud-sediment
and clear, colorless, and almost odorless
benzine above. This benzine, filtered,
may be employed for many technical
purposes, but gives an excellent, pure
product upon a second distillation.
Fatty acid from tallow, olive oil, or
other fats may be used, but care should
be taken that they have as slight an odor
of rancid fat as possible. The so-called
elaine or olein — more correctly oleic acid
— of the candle factories may likewise
be employed, but it should first be agi-
tated with a rVper-cent soda solution to
get rid of the bad-smelling fatty acids,
especially the butyric acid.
The Prevention of the Inflammability
of Benzine. — A mixture of 9 volumes
tetrachloride and 1 volume of benzine is
practicably inflammable. The flame is
soon extinguished by itself.
Substitute for Benzine as a Cleansing
Agent.—
I. — Chloroform 75 parts
Ether 75 parts
Alcohol 600 parts
Decoction of quillaya
bark 22,500 parts
Mix.
II. — Acetic ether, tech-
nically pure 10 parts
Amyl acetate 10 parts
Ammonia water 10 parts
Alcohol dilute 70 parts
Mix.
III. — Acetone 1 part
Ammonia water 1 part
Alcohol dilute 1 part
Mix.
Deodorizing Benzine. —
I. — Benzine 20 ounces
Oil of lavender. . . 1 fluidrachm
Potassium dichro-
mate 1 ounce
Sulphuric acid. . . 1 fluidounce
Water 20 fluidounces
Dissolve the dichromate in the water,
add the acid and, when the solution is
cold, the benzine. Shake every hour
during the day, allow to stand all night,
decant the benzine, wash with a pint of
water and again decant, then add the oil
of lavender.
II. — First add to the benzine 1 to 2 per
cent of oleic acid, which dissolves. Then
about a quarter of 1 per cent of tannin is
incorporated by shaking. A sufficient
quantity of caustic potassa solution, or
milk of lime, to combine with the acids
is then well shaken into the mixture,
and the whole allowed to stand. The
benzine rises to the top of the watery
fluid, sufficiently deodorized and decol-
orized for practical purposes.
III.— To 1,750 parts of water add 250
parts of sulphuric acid, and when it has
cooled down add 30 parts of potassium
permanganate and let dissolve. Add
this solution to 4,500 parts of benzine,
stir well together, and set aside for 24
hours. Now decant the benzine and to
it add a solution of 7* parts of potassium
permanganate and 15 parts of sodium
hydrate in 1,000 parts of water, and agi-
tate the substances well together. Let
stand until the benzine separates, then
draw oft'.
IV. — Dissolve 3 parts of litharge and
18 parts of sodium hydrate in 40 parts of
water. Add this to 200-250 parts of
benzine and agitate well together for two
minutes, then let settle and draw off the
benzine. Rinse the latter by agitating
BEVERAGES
107
it with plenty of clear water, let settle,
draw off the benzine, and, if necessary,
repeat the operation.
BENZINE, CLEANING WITH:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
BENZOIC ACID IN FOOD:
See Food.
BENZOIN SOAP:
See Soap.
BENZOPARAL:
A neutral, bland, oily preparation of
benzoin, useful for applying various
antiseptics by the aid of an atomizer,
nebulizer, or vaporizer. Can be used
plain or in combination with other easily
dissolved medicinals.
Paraffine, liquid 16 ounces
Gum benzoin 1 ounce
Digest on a sand bath for a half hour
and filter.
Beverages
GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER:
Old-Fashioned Ginger Beer. —
Lemons, large and
sound 6 only
Ginger, bruised 3 ounces
Sugar 6 cups
Yeast, compressed ... J cake
Boiling water 4 gallons
Water enough
Slice the lemons into a large earthen-
ware vessel, removing the seed. Add the
ginger, sugar, and water. When the
mixture has cooled to lukewarmness, add
the yeast, first diffused in a little water.
Cover the vessel with a piece of cheese
cloth, and let the beer stand 24 hours.
At the end of that time strain and bottle
it. Cork securely, but not so tightly that
the bottles would break before the corks
would fly out, and keep in a cool place.
Ginger Beer. — Honey gives the bever-
age a peculiar softness and, from not
having fermented with yeast, is the less
violent in its action when opened. In-
gredients: White sugar, I pound; honey,
| pound; bruised ginger, 5 ounces; juice
of sufficient lemons to suit the taste; water,
4 A gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 quarts
of the water for half an hour, then add
the ginger, lemon juice, and honey, with
the remainder of the water; then strain
through a cloth; when cold, add the
quarter of the white of an egg and a tea-
spoonful of essence of lemon. Let the
whole stand for four days before bot-
tling. This quantity will make a hun-
dred bottles.
Ginger Beer without Yeast.—
Ginger, bruised li pounds
Sugar 20 " pounds
Lemons 1 dozen
Honey 1 pound
Water enough
Boil the ginger in 3 gallons of water
for half an hour; add the sugar, the
lemons (bruised and sliced), the honey,
and 17 gallons of water. Strain and,
after three or four days, bottle.
Package Pop. —
Cream of tartar 3 ounces
Ginger, bruised 1 ounce
Sugar 24 ounces
Citric acid 2 drachms
Put up in a package, and direct that it
be shaken in 1J gallons of boiling water,
strained when cooled, fermented with 1
ounce of yeast, and bottled.
Ginger- Ale Extract. —
I. — Jamaica ginger,
coarse powder. . 4 ounces
Mace, powder. ... i ounce
Canada snakeroot,
coarse powder.. 60 grains
Oil of lemon 1 fluidrachm
Alcohol 12 fluidounces
Water. 4 fluidounces
Magnesium car-
bonate or puri-
fied talcum 1 av. ounce
Mix the first four ingredients, and
make 16 fluidounces of tincture with
the alcohol and water, by percolation.
Dissolve the oil of lemon in a small quan-
tity of alcohol, rub with magnesia or tal-
cum, add gradually with constant trit-
uration the tincture, and filter. The
extract may be fortified by adding 4
avoirdupois ounces of powdered grains
of paradise to the ginger, etc., of the
above before extraction with alcohol and
water.
II. — Capsicum, coarse
powder Bounces
Water 6 pints
Essence of ginger. 8 fluidounces
Diluted alcohol.. . 7 fluidounces
Vanilla extract. . . 2 fluidounces
Oil of lemon 20 drops
Caramel 1 fluidounce
Boil the capsicum with water for three
hours, occasionally replacing the water
lost by evaporation; filter, concentrate
the filtrate on a hot water bath to the con-
sistency of a thin extract, add the remain-
ing ingredients, and filter.
108
BEVERAGES
III. — Jamaica ginger,
ground 12 ounces
Lemon peel, fresh,
cut fine 2 ounces
Capsicum, powder 1 ounce
Calcined magne-
sia '. . . 1 ounce
Water0* [ofeach- sufficient
Extract the mixed ginger and capsi-
cum by percolation so as to obtain 16
fluidounces of water, set the mixture aside
for 24 hours, shaking vigorously from
time to time, then filter, and pass through
the filter enough of a mixture of 2 vol-
umes of alcohol and 1 of water to make
the filtrate measure 32 fluidounces. In
the latter macerate the lemon peel for
7 days, and again filter.
Ginger Beer. —
Brown sugar 2 pounds
Boiling water 2 gallons
Cream of tartar 1 ounce
Bruised ginger root. . . 2 ounces
Infuse the ginger in the boiling water,
add the sugar and cream of tartar; when
lukewarm strain; then add half pint good
yeast. Let it stand all night, then bot-
tle; one lemon and the white of an egg
may be added to fine it.
Lemon Beer. —
Boiling water 1 gallon
Lemon, sliced 1
Ginger, bruised 1 ounce
Yeast 1 teacupful
Sugar 1 pound
Let it stand 12 to 20 hours, and it is
ready to be bottled.
Hop Beer. —
Water 5 quarts
Hops 6 ounces
Boil 3 hours, strain the liquor, add:
Water 5 quarts
Bruised ginger 4 ounces
and boil a little longer, strain, and add
4 pounds of sugar, and when milk-
warm, 1 pint of yeast. Let it ferment;
in 24 hours It is ready for bottling.
(Enanthic Ether as a Flavoring for
Ginger Ale. — A fruity, vinous bouquet
and delightful flavor are produced by the
presence of cenanthic ether or brandy
flavor in ginger ale. This ether throws
off a rich, pungent, vinous odor, and
gives a smoothness very agreeable to any
liquor or beverage of which it forms
a part. It is a favorite with "brandy
sophisticators." Add a few drops of
the ether (previously dissolved in eight
times its bulk of Cologne spirit) to the
ginger-ale syrup just before bottling.
Soluble Extract of Ginger Ale.— Of
the following three formulas the first is
intended for soda-fountain use, the sec-
ond is a "cheap" extract for the bottlers
who want a one.-ounce-to-the-gallon ex-
tract, and the third is a bottlers' extract
to be used in the proportion of three
ounces to a gallon of syrup. This latter
is a most satisfactory extract and has
been sold with most creditable results,
both as to clearness of the finished ginger
ale and delicacy of flavor.
It will be noted that in these formulas
oleoresin of ginger is used in addition to
the powdered root. Those who do not
mind the additional expense might use
one-fourth of the same quantity of vola-
tile oil of ginger instead. This should
develop an excellent flavor, since the oil
is approximately sixteen times as strong
as the oleoresin, and has the additional
advantage of being free from resinous
extractive.
The following are the formulas:
I. — (To be used in the proportion of
4 ounces of extract to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Jamaica ginger, in
fine powder 8 pounds
Capsicum, in fine pow-
der 6 ounces
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Mix the powders intimately, moisten
them with a sufficient quantity of alco-
hol, and set aside for 4 hours. Pack
in a cylindrical percolator and percolate
with alcohol until 10 pints of percolate
have resulted. Place the percolate in a
bottle of the capacity of 16 pints, and
add to it 2 fluidrachms of oleoresin of
ginger; shake, add 2^ pounds of finely
powdered pumice stone, and agitate thor-
oughly at intervals of one-half hour for 12
hours. Then add 14 pints of water in
quantities of 1 pint at each addition,
shaking briskly meanwhile. This part
of the operation is most important. Set
the mixture aside for 24 hours, agitating
it strongly every hour or so during that
period. Then take
Oil of lemon 1 J fluidounces
Oil of rose (or ge-
ranium) 3 fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot .... 2 fluidrachms
BEVERAGES
109
Oil of cinnamon .... 3 fluidrachms
Magnesium carbon-
ate 3 fluidounces
Rub the oils with the magnesia in a
large mortar and add 9 ounces of the
clear portion of the ginger mixture to
which have been previously added 2
ounces of alcohol, and continue tritu-
ration, rinsing out the mortar with the
ginger mixture. Pass the ginger mixture
through a double filter and add through
the filter the mixture of oils and magnesia;
finally pass enough water through the
filter to make the resulting product
measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons. If the
operator should desire an extract of more
or less pungency, he may obtain his de-
sired effect by increasing or decreasing
the quantity of powdered capsicum in
the formula.
II. — (To be used in the proportion of 1
ounce to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Ginger, in moderately
fine powder 6 pounds
Capsicum, in fine pow-
der 2 \ pounds
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Mix, moisten the powder with 3 pints
of alcohol, and set aside in a suitable
vessel for 4 hours. Then pack the pow-
der firmly in a cylindrical percolator,
and percolate until 6 pints of extract are
obtained. Set this mixture aside and
label Percolate No. 1, and continue the
percolation with \\ pints of alcohol
mixed with 1^ pints of water. Set the
resultant tincture aside, and label Per-
colate No. 2.
Take oleoresin ginger 5 fluid ounces
and add to Percolate No. 1. Then take:
Oil of lemon 1^ fluidounces
Oil of cinnamon. . . 1 fluidounce
Oil of geranium \ fluidounce
Magnesium carbon-
ate 8 ounces
Triturate the oils with the magnesia,
add gradually Percolate No. 2, and set
aside. Then place Percolate No. 1 in a
large bottle, add 3J pounds of finely pow-
dered pumice stone, and shake at inter-
vals of half an hour for six hours. This
being completed, add the mixture of oils,
and later 10 pints of water, in quantities
of \ a pint at a time, shaking vigorously
after each solution. Let the mixture
stand for 24 hours, shaking it at inter-
vals, and then pass it through a double
filter. Finally add enough water through
the filter to make the product measure
24 pints, or 3 gallons.
III. — (To be used in proportion of 3
ounces to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Ginger, in moderately
fine powder 8 pounds
Capsicum, in moder-
ately fine powder . . 2 pounds
Alcohol, q. s.
Mix, moisten with alcohol, and set
aside as in the preceding formula; then
percolate with alcohol until 10 pints of
extract are obtained. To this add oleo-
resin of ginger 3 drachms, and place in
a large bottle. Add 2$ pounds of pow-
dereH pumice stone, and shake as di-
rected for formula No. 1. Then add 14
pints of water, in quantities of 1 pint at a
time, shaking vigorously after each addi-
tion. Set the mixture aside for 24 hours,
shaking at intervals. Then take:
Oil of lemon \\ fluidounces
Oil of geranium ... \ fluidounce
Oil of cinnamon ... 3 fluidrachms
Magnesia carbonate 3 ounces
Rub these in a mortar with the mag-
nesia, and add 9 ounces of the clear por-
tion of the ginger mixture mixed with 2
ounces of alcohol, rubbing the mixture
until it becomes smooth. Prepare a
double filter, and filter the ginger mix-
ture, adding through the filter the mix-
ture of oils and magnesia. Finally add
enough water through the filter to make
the final product measure 24 pints, or 3
gallons.
If these formulas are properly manip-
ulated the extracts should keep for a
reasonable length of time without a pre-
cipitate. If, however, a precipitate oc-
cur after the extract has stood for a
week, it should be refiltered.
LEMONADES:
Lemonade Preparations for the Sick.—
I. — Strawberry Lemonade: Citric acid, 6
parts; water, 100 parts; sugar, 450 parts;
strawberry syrup, 600 parts; cherry syr-
up, 300 parts; claret, 450 parts; aromatic
tincture, ad lib.
II. — Lemonade Powder: Sodium bi-
carbonate, 65; tartaric acid, 60; sugar,
125; lemon oil, 12 drops.
III. — Lemonade juice: Sugar syrup,
200; tartaric acid, 15; distilled water,
100; lemon oil, 3; tincture of vanilla, 6
drops.
IV. — Lemonade Lozenges: Tartaric
acid, 10; sugar, 30; gum arabic, 2; pow-
dered starch, 0.5; lemon oil, 6 drops;
tincture of vanilla, 25 drops; and suffi-
cient diluted spirit of wine so that 30
lozenges can be made with it.
Lemonade for Diabetics. — The follow-
ing is said to be useful for assuaging the
thirst of diabetics:
110
BEVERAGES
Citric acid 1 part
Glycerine 50 parts
Cognac 50 parts
Distilled water 500 parts
Hot Lemonade. — Take 2 large, fresh
lemons, and wash them clean with cold
water. Roll them until soft; then divide
each into halves, and use a lemon-squeez-
er or reamer to express the juice into a
small pitcher. Remove all the seeds
from tne juice, to which add 4 or more
tablespoonfuls of white sugar, according
to taste. A pint of boiling water is now
added, and the mixture stirred until the
sugar is dissolved. The beverage is very
effective in producing perspiration, and
should be drunk while hot. The same
formula may be used for making cold
lemonade, by substituting ice water for
the hot water, and adding a piece of
lemon peel. If desired, a weaker lemon-
ade may be made by using more water.
Lemonades, Lemon and .Sour Drinks
for Soda-Water Fountains.— Plain Lem-
onade.— Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized
sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; filtered water, suffi-
cient; shaved ice, sufficient.
Mix and shake well. Garnish with
fruit, and serve with both spoon and
straws.
Huyler's Lemonade. — Juice of 1 lem-
on; simple syrup, 2 ounces; soda water,
sufficient. Dress with sliced pineapple,
and serve with straws. In mixing, do
not shake, but stir with a spoon.
Pineapple Lemonade. — Juice of 1
lemon; pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; soda
water, sufficient. Dress with fruit.
Serve with straws.
Seltzer Lemonade. — Juice of 1 lemon;
pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls. Fill
with seltzer. Dress with sliced lemon.
Apollinaris Lemonade. — The same as
seltzer, substituting apollinaris water for
seltzer.
Limeade. — Juice of 1 lime; pulverized
sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water, sufficient.
Where fresh limes are not obtainable,
use bottled lime juice.
Orangeade. — Juice of 1 orange; pul-
verized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water,
sufficient; shaved ice, sufficient. Dress
with sliced orange and cherries. Serve
with straws.
Seltzer and Lemon. — Juice of 1 lemon;
seltzer, sufficient. Serve in a small
glass.
Claret Lemonade. — Juice of 1 lemon;
pulverized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls. Make
lemonade, pour into a glass containing
shaved ice until the glass lacks about one
inch of being full. Pour in sufficient
claret to fill the glass. Dress with cher-
ries and sliced pineapple.
Claret Punch. — Juice of 1 lemon; pul-
verized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls; claret
wine, 2 ounces; shaved ice, sufficient.
Serve in small glass. Dress with sliced
lemon, and fruit in season. Bright red
cherries and plums make attractive gar-
nishings.
Raspberry Lemonade. — I. — Juice of 1
lemon; 3 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar;
1 tablespoonful raspberry juice; shaved
ice; plain water; shake.
II. — Juice of 1 lemon; 2 teaspoonfuls
powdered sugar; $ ounce raspberry
syrup; shaved ice; water; shake.
Banjo Sour. — Pare a lemon, cut it in
two, add a large tablespoonful of sugar,
then thoroughly muddle it; add the
white of an egg; an ounce of sloe gin; 3
or 4 dashes of abricotine; shake well;
strain into a goblet or fizz glass, and fill
balance with soda; decorate with a slice
of pineapple and cherry.
Orgeat Punch. — Orgeat syrup, 12
drachms; brandy, 1 ounce; juice of 1
lemon.
Granola. — Orange syrup, 1 ounce;
grape syrup, 1 ounce; juice of \ lemon;
shaved ice, q. s. Serve with straws.
Dress with sliced lemon or pineapple.
American Lemonade. — One ounce or-
ange syrup; 1 ounce lemon syrup; 1 tea-
spoonful powdered sugar; 1 dash acid-
phosphate solution; \ glass shaved ice.
Fill with coarse stream. Add slice of
orange, and run two straws through it.
Old -Fashioned Lemonade. — Put in a
freezer and freeze almost hard, then add
the fruits, and freeze very hard. Serve
in a silver sherbet cup.
"Ping Pong" Frappe. — Grape juice,
unfermented, 1 quart; port wine (Cali-
fornia), \ pint; lemon syrup, 12 ounces;
pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; orange syrup,
4 ounces; Benedictine cordial, 4 ounces;
sugar, 1 pound.
Dissolve sugar in grape juice and put
in wine; add the syrup and cordial;
serve from a punch bowl, with ladle, into
12-ounce narrow lemonade glass and
fill with solid stream; garnish with slice
of orange and pineapple, and serve with
straw.
Orange Frapp!.— Glass half full of
fine ice; tablespoonful powdered sugar;
\ ounce orange syrup; 2 dashes lemon
syrup; dash prepared raspberry; \ ounce
BEVERAGES
1H
acid-phosphate solution. Fill with soda
and stir well; strain into a mineral glass
and serve.
Hot Lemonades. —
I. — Lemon essence. . 4 fluidrachms
Solution of citric
acid 1 fluidounce
Syrup, enough to
make 32 fluidounces
In serving, draw 2t fluidounces of the
syrup into an 8-ounce mug, fill with hot
water, and serve with a spoon.
II. — Lemon. 1
Alcohol 1 fluidounce
Solution of citric
acid 2 fluidrachms
Sugar 20 av. ounces
Water 20 fluidounces
White of 1 egg
Grate the peel of the lemon, macerate
with the alcohol for a day; express; also
express the lemon, mix the two, add the
sugar and water, dissolve by agitation,
and add the solution of citric acid and
the white of egg, the latter first beaten to
a froth. Serve like the preceding.
Egg Lemonade.— I. —Break 1 egg into
a soda glass, add 1| ounces lemon syrup,
a drachm of lemon juice, and a little
shaved ice; then draw carbonated water
to fill the glass, stirring well.
II.— Shaved ice J tumblerful
Powdered sugar 4 tablespoonfuls
Juice of 1 lemon
Yolk of 1 egg
Shake well, and add carbonated water
to fill the glass.
HOT SODA-WATER DRINKS:
Chocolate. — I. — This may be prepared
in two ways, from the powdered cocoa or
from a syrup. To prepare the cocoa for
use, dry mix with an equal quantity of
pulverized sugar and use a heaping
teaspoonful to a mug. To prepare a
syrup, take 12 ounces of cocoa, 5 pints
of water, and 4 pounds of sugar. Re-
duce the cocoa to a smooth paste with a
little warm water. Put on the fire.
When the water becomes hot add the
paste, and then allow to boil for 3 or 4
minutes; remove from fire and add the
sugar; stir carefully while heating, to
prevent scorching; when cold add 3
drachms of vanilla; £ to I ounce will suf-
fice for a cup of chocolate; top off with
whipped cream.
II. — Baker's fountain choc-
olate 1 pound
Syrup 1 gallon
Extract vanilla enough
Shave the chocolate into a gallon por-
celained evaporating dish and melt with
a gentle heat, stirring with a thin-bladed
spatula. When melted remove from the
fire and add 1 ounce of cold water, mix-
ing well. Add gradually 1 gallon of hot
syrup and strain; flavor to suit. Use
1 ounce to a mug.
III.— Hot Egg Chocolate.— Break a
fresh egg into a soda tymbler; add 1£
ounces chocolate syrup and 1 ounce
cream; shake thoroughly, add hot soda
slowly into the shaker, stirring mean-
while; strain carefully into mug; top off
with whipped cream and serve.
IV.-^Hot Chocolate and Milk.—
Chocolate syrup .... 1 ounce
Hot milk 4 ounces
Stir well, fill mug with hot soda and
serve.
V.— Hot Egg Chocolate.— One egg, 1|
ounces chocolate syrup, 1 teaspoonful
sweet cream; shake, strain, add 1 cup
hot soda, and 1 tablespoonful whipped
cream.
Coffee. — I. — Make an extract by mac-
erating 1 pound of the best Mocha and
Java with 8 ounces of water for 20 min-
utes, then add hot water enough to per-
colate 1 pint. One or 2 drachms of this
extract will make a delicious cup of cof-
fee. Serve either with or without cream,
and let customer sweeten to taste.
II. — Pack ^ pound of pulverized cof-
fee in a percolator. Percolate with 2
quarts of boiling water, letting it run
through twice. Add to this 2 quarts of
milk; keep hot in an urn and draw as a
finished drink. Add a lump of sugar
and top off with whipped cream.
III. — Coffee syrup may be made by
adding boiling water from the apparatus
to 1 pound of coffee, placed in a suitable
filter or coffeepot, until 2 quarts of the
infusion are obtained. Add to this 3
pounds of sugar. In dispensing, first
put sufficient cream in the cup, add the
coffee, then sweeten, if necessary, and
mix with the stream from the draught
tube.
IV. — Mocha coffee (ground
fine) 4 ounces
Java coffee (ground
fine) 4 ounces
Granulated sugar 6 pounds
Hot water q. s.
Percolate the coffee with hot water un-
til the percolate measures 72 ounces.
Dissolve the sugar in the percolate by
agitation without heat and strain.
Hot Egg Orangeade. — One egg; juice
BEVERAGES
of \ orange; 2 teaspoonfuls powdered
sugar. Shake, strain, add 1 cup of hot
water. Stir, serve with nutmeg.
Hot Egg Bouillon. — One-half ounce
liquid extract beef; 1 egg; salt and pep-
per; hot water to fill 8-ounce mug. Stir
extract, egg, and seasoning together; add
water, still stirring; strain and serve.
Hot Celery Punch. — One - quarter
ounce of clam juice; \ ounce beef extract;
1 ounce of cream; 4 dashes of celery es-
sence. Stir while adding hot water, and
serve with spices.
Chicken Bouillon. — Two ounces con-
centrated chicken; \ ounce sweet cream
and spice. Stir while adding hot water.
Ginger. —
Fluid extract of ginger 2£ ounces
Sugar 40 ounces
Water, to 2£ pints
Take 10 ounces of the sugar and mix
with the fluid extract of ginger; heat on
the water bath until the alcohol is evap-
orated. Then mix with 20 ounces of
water and shake till dissolved. Filter
and add the balance of the water and the
sugar. Dissolve by agitation.
Cocoa Syrup. —
I. — Cocoa, light, soluble. 4 ounces
Granulated sugar. ... 2 pounds
Boiling hot water 1 quart
Extract vanilla 1 ounce
Dissolve the cocoa in the hot water, by
stirring, then add the sugar and dissolve.
Strain, and when cold add the vanilla
extract.
II. — Cocoa syrup 2 ounces
Cream 1 ounce
Turn on the hot water stream and stir
while filling. Top off with whipped
cream.
Hot Soda Toddy. —
Lemon juice 2 fluidrachms
Lemon syrup 1 fluidounce
Aromatic bitters. ... 1 fluidrachm
Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce
mug.
Sprinkle with nutmeg or cinnamon.
Hot Orange Phosphate. —
Orange syrup 1 fluidounce
Solution of acid
phosphate 1 fluidrachm
Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce
mug.
It is prepared more acceptably by mix-
ing the juice of half an orange with acid
phosphate, sugar, and hot water.
Pepsin Phosphate. — One teaspoonful
of liquid pepsin; 2 dashes of acid phos-
phate; 1 ounce of lemon syrup; 1 cup hot
water.
Cream Beef Tea. — Use 1 teaspoonful
of liquid beef extract in a mug of hot
water, season with salt and pepper, then
stir in a tablespoonful of rich cream.
Put a teaspoonful of whipped cream on
top and serve with flakes.
Cherry Phosphate. — Cherry-phosphate
syrup, \\ ounces; hot water to make 8
ounces.
Cherry-phosphate syrup is made as
follows: Cherry juice, 3 pints; sugar, 6
pounds; water, 1 pint; acid phosphate,
4 ounces. Bring to a boil, and when
cool add the acid phosphate.
Celery Clam Punch. — Clam juice, 2
drachms; beef extract, 1 drachm; cream,
1 ounce; essence of celery, 5 drops; hot
water to make 8 ounces.
Claret Punch. — Claret wine, 2 ounces;
sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls; juice of \ lemon;
hot water to make 8 ounces.
Ginger. — Extract of ginger, 2 drachms;
sugar, 2 drachms; lemon juice, 2 dashes;
hot water to make 8 ounces.
Lemon Juice, Plain. — Fresh lemon
juice, 2iy drachms; lemon syrup, 1 ounce;
hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces.
Lime Juice. — Lime juice, f drachm;
lemon syrup, 1 ounce; hot water to make
8 ounces. Mix. Eberle remarks that
lemon juice or lime juice enters into
many combinations. In plain soda it
may be combined with ginger and other
flavors, as, for instance, chocolate and
coffee.
Lemonade. — Juice of 1 lemon; pow-
dered sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; hot water to
make 8 ounces. A small piece of fresh
lemon peel twisted over the cup lends an
added flavor.
Hot Malt. — Extract of malt, 1 ounce;
cherry syrup, 1 ounce; hot water, suffi-
cient to make 8 ounces. Mix.
Malted Milk.— Horlick's malted milk,
2 tablespoonfuls; hot water, quantity
sufficient to make 8 ounces; flavoring to
suit. Mix. Essence of coffee, choco-
late, etc., and many of the fruit syrups
go well with malted milk.
Hot Malted Milk Coffee (or Chocolate).
— Malted milk, 2 teaspoonfuls; coffee
(or chocolate) syrup, 1 ounce; hot water,
quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.
Hot Beef Tea. —I. —Best beef extract, 1
tablespoonfui; sweet cream, 1 ounce; hot
BEVERAGES
113
water, 7 ounces; pepper, salt, etc., quan-
tity sufficient. Mix.
II. — Extract beef bouillon, 1 teaspoon-
ful; extract aromatic soup herbs (see
Condiments), 10 drops; hot soda, 1 cup-
ful. Mix.
III.— Extract of beef 1 teaspoonful
Hot water q. s.
Pepper, salt, and celery salt.
Mix.
Hot Bouillon.—
Beef extract 1 ounce
Hot water, q. s. to
make 8 ounces
Pepper, salt, etc q. s.
Mix.
Clam Bouillon. —
I. — Clam juice 12 drachms
Cream 2 ounces
Hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces
Mix.
II. — Extract clam bouillon 2 ounces
Prepared milk 2 drachms
Extract of aromatic
soup herbs 5 drops
Extract white pepper. . 5 drops
Hot soda 1 cupful
Mix.
III. — Clam juice may be served with
hot water, salt and pepper added. Add-
ing butter makes this bouillon a broth.
It may also be served with milk or
cream, lemon juice, tomato catsup, etc.
Hot oyster juice may be served in the
same way.
Hot Tea.—
I. — Tea syrup sufficient
Hot water, q. s. to
make 1 cupful
II. — Loaf sugar 4 cubes
Extract of Oolong
tea, about 1 dessertsp'f ul
Prepared milk, about 1 dessertsp'f ul
Hot soda 1 cupful
Whipped cream. . . 1 tablespoonful
Mix the tea extract, sugar, and pre-
pared milk, pour on water, and dissolve.
Top off with whipped cream.
Hot Egg Drinks.— I.— One-half to 1
ounce liquid extract of beef, 1 egg, salt
and pepper to season, hot water to fill an
8-ounce mug. Stir the extract, egg, and
seasoning together with a spoon, to get
well mixed, add the water, stirring brisk-
ly meanwhile; then strain, and serve.
Or shake the egg and extract in a shaker,
add the water, and mix by pouring back
and forth several times, from shaker to
mug.
II.— Hot Egg Chocolate.— Cne to 1£
ounces chocolate syrup, 1 egg, £ ounce
cream, hot water sufficient to fill an
8-ounce mug.
Mix the syrup, egg, and cream to-
gether in an egg-shaker; shake as in
making cold drinks; add the hot water,
and mix all by pouring back and
forth several times, from shaker to mug.
Or, prepare by beating the egg with a
spoon, add the syrup and cream, mix all
quickly with the spoon, and add hot
water, stirring constantly, and strain.
III.— Hot Egg Coffee.— One egg, 1
dessertspoonful extract of coffee, 1 tea-
spoonful sweet cream, 1 ounce syrup.
Shake well, strain, and add 1 cupful hot
water and top with whipped cream.
IV. — Hot Egg Lemonade. — One egg,
juice of 1 lemon, 3 teaspoonf uls powdered
sugar. Beat the egg with lemon juice
and sugar thoroughly. Mix while add-
ing the water. Serve grated nutmeg and
cinnamon. The amount of lemon juice
and sugar may be varied to suit different
tastes.
V.— Hot Egg Milk.— Two teaspoon-
fuls sugar, 1 ounce cream, 1 egg, hot
milk to fill an 8-ounce mug. Prepare as
in hot egg chocolate, top with whipped
cream, and sprinkle with nutmeg. If
there are no facilities for keeping hot
milk, use about 2 ounces of cream, and
fill mug with hot water.
VI. — Hot Egg Nogg. — Plain syrup,
| ounce; brandy, £ ounce; Angostura
bitters, 3 drops; 1 egg. Put in shaker
and beat well. Strain in 10-ounce mug,
and fill with hot milk; finish with
whipped cream and nutmeg.
VII.— Hot Egg Phosphate. — Two
ounces lemon syrup, 1 egg, ^ ounce solu-
tion of acid phosphate. Mix in a glass,
and shake together thoroughly; pour in-
to another glass, heated previously, and
slowly draw full of hot water; season with
nutmeg.
VIII.— Hot Egg Phosphate.— Break
fresh egg into shaker and add i ounce
pineapple syrup, £ ounce orange syrup,
1 dash phosphate. Shake, without ice,
and pour into bouillon cup. Draw cup-
ful of hot water, sprinkle a touch of cin-
namon, and serve with wafers.
FANCY SODA DRINKS:
Coffee Cream Soda. — Serve in a 12-
ounce glass. Draw 1£ ounces of syrup
and 1 ounce of cream. Into the shaker
draw 8 ounces of carbonated water, pour
into the glass sufficient to fill it to within
114
BEVERAGES
1 inch of the top; pour from glass to
shaker and back, once or twice, to mix
thoroughly; give the drink a rich, creamy
appearance, and make it cream suffi-
ciently to fill the glass.
Iced Coffee. — Serve in a 10-ounce
glass. Draw 1 ounce into glass, fill
nearly full with ice-cold milk, and mix by
stirring.
Egg Malted Milk Coffee. — Prepare
same as, malted milk coffee, with the ex-
ception of adding the egg before shaking,
and top off with a little nutmeg, if de-
sired. This drink is sometimes called
coffee light lunch.
Coffee Frappe. — Serve in a 12-ounce
glass. Coffee syrup, 1| ounces; white
of 1 egg; 1 to 1£ ounces of pure, rich,
sweet cream; a small portion of fine
shaved ice; shake thoroughly to beat the
white of the egg light, and then remove
the glass, leaving the contents in the
shaker. Now fill the shaker two-thirds
full, using the fine stream only. Draw
as quickly as possible that the drink may
be nice and light. Now pour into glass
and back, and then strain into a clean
glass. Serve at once, and without
straws. This should be drunk at once,
else it will settle, and lose its lightness
and richness.
Coffee Nogg. —
Coffee syrup 2 ounces
Brandy 4 drachms
Cream 2 ounces
One egg.
Coffee Cocktail. —
Coffee syrup 1 ounce
One egg.
Port wine 1 ounce
Brandy 2 drachms
Shake, strain into a small glass, and
add soda. Mace on top.
Chocolate and Milk. —
Chocolate syrup 2 ounces
Sweet milk, sufficient.
Fill a glass half full of shaved ice, put
in the syrup, and add milk until the glass
is almost full. Shake well, and serve
without straining. Put whipped cream
on top and serve with straws.
Chocolate Frappe. —
Frozen whipped cream, sufficient.
Shaved ice, sufficient.
Fill a glass half full of frozen whipped
cream, fill with shaved ice nearly to the
top, and pour in chocolate syrup. Other
syrups may be used, it desired.
Royal Frappe. — This drink consists of
3 parts black coffee and 1 part of brandy,
frozen in a cooler, and served while in a
semifrozen state.
Mint Julep. — One-half tumbler shaved
ice, teaspoonful powdered sugar, dash
lemon juice, 2 or 3 sprigs of fresh mint.
Crush the mint against side of the glass
to get the flavor. Then add claret syrup,
\ ounce; raspberry syrup, 1^ ounces; and
draw carbonated water nearly to fill
glass. Insert bunch of mint and fill
glass, leaving full of shaved ice. Serve
with straws, and decorate with fruits of
the season.
Grape Glace". — Beat thoroughly the
whites of 4 eggs and stir in 1 pound of
powdered sugar, then add 1 pint grape
juice, 1 pint water, and 1 pound more of
powdered sugar. Stir well until sugar
is dissolved, and serve from a pitcher or
glass dish, with ladle.
"Golf Goblet."— Serve in a 12-ounce
glass; fill two-thirds full of cracked ice,
add \ ounce pineapple juice, 1 teaspoon-
ful lemon juice, 1 teaspoonful raspberry
vinegar. Put spoon in glass, and fill to
within one-half inch of top with carbon-
ated water; add shaved ice, heaping full.
Put strawberry or cherry on top, and
stick slice of orange down side of glass.
Serve with spoon and straws.
Goldenade. — Shaved ice, £ tumbler-
ful; powdered sugar; juice of 1 lemon;
yolk of 1 egg. Shake well, add soda
water from large stream, turn from tum-
bler to shaker, and vice versa, several
times, and strain through julep strainer
into a 12-ounce tumbler.
Lunar Blend. — Take two mixing
glasses, break an egg, putting the yolk
in one glass, the white into the other;
into the glass with the yolk add 1 ounce
cherry syrup and some cracked ice;
shake, add small quantity soda, and
strain into a 12-ounce glass. Into the
other mixing glass add 1 ounce plain
sweet cream, and beat with bar spoons
until well whipped; add \ ounce lemon
syrup, then transfer it into the shaker,
and add soda from fine stream only,
and float on top of the one containing
the yolk and sherry. Serve with two
straws.
Egg Chocolate.—
Chocolate syrup 2 ounces
Cream 4 ounces
White of one egg.
BEVERAGES
115
Egg CrSme de Menthe.—
Mint syrup 12 drachms
Cream 3 ounces
White of one egg.
Whisky 4 drachms
Egg Sherbet. —
Sherry syrup 4 drachms
Pineapple syrup 4 drachms
Raspberry syrup 4 drachms
One egg.
Cream.
Egg Claret.—
Claret syrup 2 ounces
Cream 3 ounces
One egg.
Royal Mist. —
Orange syrup 1 ounce
Catawba syrup 1 ounce
Cream 2 ounces
One egg.
Banana Cream. —
Banana syrup 12 drachms
Cream 4 ounces
One egg.
Egg Coffee. —
Coffee syrup 2 ounces
Cream .". 3 ounces
One egg.
Shaved ice.
Cocoa Mint. —
Chocolate syrup. .
Peppermint syrup. ... 1
White of one egg.
Cream 2 ounces
The peppermint syrup is made as fol-
lows:
Oil of peppermint. . . 30 minims
Syrup simplex 1 gallon
Soda foam 1 ounce
Egg Lemonade. —
Juice of one lemon.
Pulverized sugar 3 teasp'f uls
One egg.
Water, q. s.
Shake well, using plenty of ice, and
serve in a small glass.
Nadjy.—
Raspberry juice 1 ounce
Pineapple syrup 1 ounce
One egg.
Cream 2 ounces
Siberian Flip.—
Orange syrup 1 ounce
Pineapple syrup 1 ounce
One egg.
Cream 2 ounces
1 ounce
ounce
Egg Orgeat.—
Orgeat syrup 12 drachms
Cream 3 ounces
One egg.
Normona. —
Peach syrup 1 ounce
Grape syrup 1 ounce
Cream 3 ounces
Brandy 2 drachms
One egg.
Silver Fizz.—
Catawba syrup 2 ounces
Holland gin 2 drachms
Lemon juice 8 dashes
White of one egg.
Golden Fizz. —
Claret syrup 2 ounces
Holland gin | ounce
Lemon juice 8 dashes
Yolk of one egg.
Rose Cream.—
Rose syrup 12 drachms
Cream 4 ounces
White of one egg.
Violet Cream. —
Violet syrup 12 drachms
Cream 4 ounces
White of one egg.
Rose Mint. —
Rose syrup 6 drachms
Mint syrup 6 drachms
Cream 3 ounces
White of one egg.
Currant Cream.—
Red-currant syrup ... 2 ounces
Cream 3 ounces
One egg.
Quince Flip. —
Quince syrup 2 ounces
Cream 3 ounces
One egg.
Shaved ice.
Coffee Nogg.—
Coffee syrup 2 ounces
Brandy 4 drachms
Cream 2 ounces
One egg.
Egg Sour. —
Juice of one lemon.
Simple syrup 12 drachms
One egg.
Shake, strain, and fill with soda. Mace
on top.
116
BEVERAGES
Lemon Sour. —
Lemon syrup 12 drachms
Juice of one lemon.
One egg.
Raspberry Sour. —
Raspberry syrup. ... 12 drachms
One egg. \
Juice of one lemon.
Yama. —
One egg.
Cream
Sugar
Jamaica rum.
. . 2 ounces
. . 2 teaspoonfuls
$ ounce
Shake well, put into cup, and add hot
water. Serve with whipped cream, and
sprinkle mace on top.
Prairie Oyster. —
Cider vinegar 2 ounces
One egg.
Put vinegar into glass, and break into
it the egg. Season with salt and pepper.
Serve without mixing.
Fruit Frappe. —
Granulated gelatin ... 1 ounce
Juice of six lemons.
Beaten whites of two eggs.
Water 5 quarts
Syrup 1 quart
Maraschino cherries. . 8 ounces
Sliced peach 4 ounces
Sliced pineapple 4 ounces
Whole strawberries. . . 4 ounces
Sliced orange 4 ounces
Dissolve the gelatin in 1 quart boiling
hot water; add tne syrup and the balance
of the water; add the whites of the eggs
and lemon juice.
KOUMISS.
The original koumiss is the Russian,
made from mare's milk, while that pro-
duced in this country and other parts of
Europe is usually, probably always, made
from cow's milk. For this reason there
is a difference in the preparation which
•may or may not be of consequence. It
has been asserted that the ferment used
in Russia differs from ordinary yeast, but
this has not been established.
In an article on this subject, contrib-
uted by D. H. Davies to the Pharma-
ceutical Journal and Transactions, it is
pointed out that mare's milk contains less
casein and fatty matter than cow's
milk, and he states that it is "therefore
far more easy of digestion." He thinks
that cow's milk yields a better prepara-
tion when diluted with water to reduce
the percentage of casein, etc. He pro-
poses the following formula:
Fresh milk . . 12 ounces
Water 4 ounces
Brown sugar 150 grains
Compressed yeast. . . 24 grains
Milk sugar 3 drachms
Dissolve the milk sugar in the water,
add to the milk, rub the yeast and brown
sugar down in a mortar with a little of
the mixture, then strain into the other
portion.
Strong bottles are very essential, cham-
pagne bottles being frequently used, and
the corks should fit tightly; in fact, it is
almost necessary to use a bottling ma-
chine for the purpose, and once the cork
is properly fixed it should be wired down.
Many failures have resulted because the
corks did not fit properly, the result being
that the carbon dioxide escaped as
formed and left a worthless preparation.
It is further necessary to keep the prepa-
ration at a moderate temperature, and to
be sure that the article is properly fin-
ished the operator should gently shake
the bottles each day for about 10 min-
utes to prevent the clotting of the casein.
It is well to take the precaution of rolling
a cloth around the bottle during the
shaking process, as the amount of gas
generated is great, and should the bottle
be weak it might explode.
Kogelman says that if 1 volume of
buttermilk be mixed with 1 or 2 vol-
umes of sweet milk, in a short time
lively fermentation sets in, and in about
3 days the work is completed. This, ac-
cording to the author, produces a wine-
scented fluid, rich in alcohol, carbon
dioxide, lactic acid, and casein, which,
according to all investigations yet made,
is identical with koumiss. The follow-
ing practical hints are given for the pro-
duction of a good article: The sweet milk
used should not be entirely freed from
cream; the bottles should be of strong
glass; the fermenting milk must be in-
dustriously shaken by the operator at
least 3 times a day, and then the cork
put in firmly, so that the fluid will become
well charged with carbon-dioxide gas ;
the bottles must be daily opened and at
least twice each day brought nearly to a
horizontal position, in order to allow the
carbon dioxide to escape and air to enter;
otherwise fermentation rapidly ceases,
If a drink is desired strong in carbonic
acid, the bottles, toward the end of fer-
mentation, should be placed with the
necks down. In order to ferment a
fresh quantity of milk, simply add $
of its volume of either actively fer-
menting or freshly fermented milk. The
temperature should be from 50° to 60°
F., about 60° being the most favorable.
BEVERAGES
117
Here are some miscellaneous formulas:
I. — Fill a quart champagne bottle up
to the neck with pure milk; add 2 ta-
blespoonfuls of white sugar, after dis-
solving the same in a little water over a
hot fire; add also a quarter of a 2-cent
cake of compressed yeast. Then tie the
cork in the bottle securely, and shake
the mixture well; place it in a room of
the temperature of 50° to 95° F. for 6
hours, and finally in the ice box over
night. Handle wrapped in a towel as
protection if the bottle should burst.
Be sure that the milk is pure, that the
bottle is sound, that the yeast is fresh, to
open the mixture in the morning with
great care, on account of its effervescent
properties; and be sure not to drink it at
all if there is any curdle or thickening
part resembling cheese, as this indicates
that the fermentation has been prolonged
beyond the proper time.
II. — Dilute the milk with £ part of
hot water, and while still tepid add £
of very sour (but otherwise good) but-
termilk. Put it into a wide jug, cover
with a clean cloth, and let stand in a
warmish place (about 75° F.) for 24
hours; stir up well, and leave for an-
other 24 hours. Then beat thoroughly
together, and pour from jug to jug till
perfectly smooth and creamy. It is
now "still" koumiss, and may be drunk
at once. To make it sparkling, which
is generally preferred, put it into cham-
pagne or soda-water bottles; do not
quite fill them, secure the corks well,
and lay them in a cool cellar. It will
then keep for 6 or 8 weeks, though
it becomes increasingly acid. To ma-
ture some for drinking quickly, it is as
well to keep a bottle or two to start with
in some warmer place, and from time to
time shake vigorously. With this treat-
ment it should, in about 3 days, be-
come sufficiently effervescent to spurt
freely through a champagne tap, which
must be used for drawing it off as re-
quired. Later on, when very frothy and
acid it is more pleasant' to drink if a
little sweetened water (or milk and wa-
ter) is first put into the glass. Shake
the bottle, and hold it inverted well into
the tumbler before turning the tap.
Having made one lot of koumiss as above
you can use some of that instead of
buttermilk as a ferment for a second
lot, and so on 5 or 6 times in succession;
after which it will be found advisable to
begin again as at first. Mare's milk is
the best for koumiss; then ass's milk.
Cow's milk may be made more like them
by adding a little sugar of milk (or even
loaf sugar) with the hot water before fer-
menting. But perhaps the chief draw-
back to cow's milk is that the cream
separates permanently, whereas that of
mare's milk will remix. Hence use par-
tially skimmed milk; for if there is much
cream it only forms little lumps of butter,
which are apt to clog the tap, or are left
behind in the bottle.
Kwass. — Kwass is a popular drink
among the Russian population of Kun-
zews, prepared as follows: In a big kettle
put from 13 to 15 quarts of water, and
bring to a boil, and when in active ebul-
lition pour in 500 grams of malt. Let
boil for 20 minutes, remove from the
fire, let cool down, and strain off. The
liquid is now put into a clean keg or
barrel, 30 grams (about an ounce) of best
compressed yeast added along with about
600 grams (20 ounces) of sugar, and the
cask is put in a warm place to ferment.
As soon as bubbles of carbonic gas are de-
tected on the surface of the liquid, it is a
signal that the latter is ready for bottling.
In each of the bottles, which should be
strong and clean, put one big raisin, fill,
cork, and wire down. The bottles
should be placed on the side, and in the
coolest place available — best, on ice.
The liquor is ready for drinking in from
2 to 3 days, and is said to be most pal-
atable.
" Braga." — Braga is a liquid of milky
turbidity, resembling cafe au lait in
color, and forming a considerable pre-
cipitate if left alone. When shaken it
sparkles and a little gas escapes. Its
taste is more or less acid, possessing a
pleasant flavor.
About 35 parts of crushed millet, to
which a little wheat flour is added, are
placed in a large kettle. On this about
400 parts of water are poured. The
mixture is stirred well and boiled for 3
hours. After settling for 1 hour the lost
water is renewed and the boiling con-
tinued for another 10 hours. A viscous
mass remains in the kettle, which sub-
stance is spread upon large tables to
cool. After it is perfectly cool, it is
stirred with water in a wooden trough
and left to ferment for 8 hours. This
pulp is sifted, mixed with a little water,
and after an hour the braga is ready for
sale. The taste is a little sweetish at first,
but becomes more and more sourish in
time. Fermentation begins only in the
trough.
WINTER BEVERAGES :
Campchello. — Thoroughly beat the
yolks of 12 fresh eggs with 2£ pounds
finely powdered, refined sugar, the juice
118
BEVERAGES
of 3 lemons and 2 oranges, and 3 bottles
of Graves or other white wine, over the
fire, until rising. Remove, and slowly
beat 1 bottle of Jamaica rum with it.
Egg Wine. — Vigorously beat 4 whole
eggs and the yolks of 4 with £ pound of
fine sugar; next add 2 quarts of white
wine and beat over a moderate fire until
rising.
Bavaroise au Cognac. — Beat up the
yolks of 8 eggs in 1 quart of good milk
over the fire, until boiling, then quickly
add 5 ounces of sugar and £ quart of
fine cognac.
Bavaroise au Caf6. — Heat 1 pint of
strong coffee and 1 pint of milk, 5 ounces
of sugar, and the yolks of 8 eggs, until
boiling, then add -fa quart of Jamaica
rum.
Carbonated Pineapple Champagne. —
Plain syrup, 42° 10 gallons
Essence of pineapple 8 drachms
Tincture of lemon. . . 5 ounces
Carbonate of magne-
sia 1 ounce
Liquid saffron 2£ ounces
Citric-acid solution.. 30 ounces
Caramel 2J ounces
Filter before adding the citric-acid so-
lution and limejuice. Use 2 ounces to
each bottle.
A German Drink. — To 100 parts of
water add from 10 to 15 parts of sugar,
dissolve and add to the syrup thus formed
an aqueous extract of 0.8 parts of green
or black tea. Add fresh beer or brew-
ers' yeast, put in a warm place and let
ferment. When fermentation has pro-
gressed to a certain point the liquid is
cleared, and then bottled, corked, and
the corks tied down. The drink is said
to be very pleasant. 1
Limejuice Cordial. — Limejuice cor-
dial that will keep good for any length of
time may be made as follows: Sugar,
6 pounds; water, 4 pints; citric acid, 4
ounces; boric acid, £ ounce. Dissolve
by the aid of a gentle heat, and when cold
add refined limejuice, 60 ounces; tinc-
ture of lemon peel, 4 ounces; water to
make up to 2 gallons, and color with car-
amel.
Summer Drink. —
Chopped ice 2 tablespoonfuls
Chocolate syrup . . 2 tablespoonfuls
Whipped cream ... 3 tablespoonfuls
Milk $ cup
Carbonated water. J cup
Shake or stir well before drinking. A
tablespoonful of vanilla ice cream is a
desirable addition. A plainer drink is
made by combining the syrup, f cup of
milk, and the ice, and shaking well.
American Champagne. — Good cider
(crab-apple cider is the best), 7 gal-
lons; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 quart;
genuine champagne wine, 5 pints; milk,
1 gallon; bitartrate of potassa, 2 ounces.
Mix, let stand a short time; bottle while
fermenting. An excellent imitation.
British Champagne. — Loaf sugar,
56 pounds; brown sugar (pale), 48
pounds; water (warm), 45 gallons; white
tartar, 4 ounces; mix, and at a proper
temperature add yeast, 1 quart; and
afterwards sweet cider, 5 gallons; bruised
wild cherries, 14 or 15 ounces; pale
spirits, 1 gallon; orris powder, J ounce.
Bottle while fermenting.
Champagne Cider. — Good pale cider,
1 hogshead; spirits, 3 gallons; sugar,
20 pounds; mix, and let it stand one
fortnight; then fine with skimmed milk,
| gallon; this will be very pale, and
a similar article, when properly bottled
and labeled, opens so briskly that even
good judges have mistaken it for genuine
champagne.
BEER:
Scotch Beer.— Add 1 peck malt to 4
gallons of boiling water and let it mash
for 8 hours, and then strain, and in the
strained liquor boil:
Hops 4 ounces
Coriander seeds ...... 1 ounce
Honey 1 pound
Orange peel 2 ounces
Bruised ginger 1 ounce
Boil for half an hour, then strain and
ferment in the usual way.
Hop Bitter Beer.—
Coriander seeds 2 ounces
Orange peel 4 ounces
Ginger 1 ounce
Gentian root \ ounce
Boil in 5 gallons of water for half an
hour, then strain and put into the liquor
4 ounces hops and 3 pounds of sugar,
and simmer for 15 minutes, then add
sufficient yeast, and bottle when ready.
Sarsaparilla Beer. — I. — Compound ex-
tract of sarsaparilla, 1 \ ounces ; hot water,
1 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of
good pale or East India ale, 7 pints.
II. — Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 pound;
guaiacum bark (bruised small), \ pound;
guaiacum wood (rasped) and licorice root
(sliced), of each, 2 ounces; aniseed
(bruised), \\ ounces; mezereon root-
BEVERAGES
119
bark, 1 ounce ; cloves (cut small), J
ounce; moist sugar, 3£ pounds; hot
water (not boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a
clean stone jar, and keep it in a moder-
ately warm room (shaking it twice or
thrice daily) until active fermentation
sets in, then let it repose for about a week,
when it will be ready for use. This is
said to be superior to the other prepara-
tions of sarsaparilla as an alterative
or purifier of the blood, particularly in
old affections. That usually made has
generally only J of the above quan-
tity of 'sugar, for which molasses is often
substituted; but in either case it will not
keep well; whereas, with proper caution,
the products of the above formulas may
be kept for 1 or even 2 years. No
yeast must be used. Dose: A small
tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.
Spruce Beer. — I. — Sugar, 1 pound;
essence of spruce, £ ounce; boiling water,
1 gallon; mix well, and when nearly cold
add of yeast £ wineglassf ul ; and the
next day bottle like ginger beer.
II. — Essence of spruce, £ pint; pi-
mento and ginger (bruised), or each, 5
ounces; hops, £ pound; water, 3 gallons;
boil the whole for 10 minutes, then add
of moist sugar, 12 pounds (or good mo-
lasses, 14 pounds); warm water, 11 gal-
lons; mix well, and, when only luke-
warm, further add of yeast, 1 pint; after
the liquid has fermented for about 24
hours, bottle it.
This is diuretic and antiscorbutic. It is
regarded as an agreeable summer drink,
and often found useful during long sea
voyages. When made with lump sugar
it is called White Spruce Beer; when with
moist sugar or treacle, Brown Spruce
Beer. An inferior sort is made by using
less sugar or more water.
Treacle'Beer. — I. — From treacle or mo-
lasses, £ to 2 pounds per gallon (accord-
ing to the desired strength) ; hops, J to f
ounce; yeast, a tablespoonful; water,
q. s.; treated as below.
II. — Hops, 1£ pounds; corianders, 1
ounce; capsicum pods (cut small), %
ounce; water, 8 gallons; boil for 10 or
15 minutes, and strain the liquor
through a coarse sieve into a barrel con-
taining treacle, 28 pounds; then throw
back the hops, etc., into the copper and
reboil them, for 10 minutes, with a
second 8 gallons of water, which must be
strained into the barrel, as before; next
"rummage" the whole well with a stout
stick, add of cold water 21 gallons (suf-
ficient to make the whole measure 37
r lions), and, again after mixing, stir in
pint of good fresh yeast; lastly, let it
remain for 24 hours in a moderately
warm place, after which it may be put
into the cellar, and in 2 or 3 days bottled
or tapped on draught. In a week it will
be fit to drink. For a stronger beer, 36
pounds, or even half a hundredweight of
molasses may be used. It will then
keep good for a twelvemonth. This is a
wholesome drink, but apt to prove laxa-
tive when taken in large quantities.
Weiss Beer.— This Differs from the
ordinary lager beer in that it contains
wheat malt. The proportions are §
wheat to $ barley malt, 1 pound hops
being used with a peck of the combined
malt to each 20 gallons of water. A
good deal depends on the yeast, which
must be of a special kind, the best grades
being imported from Germany.
Yellow Coloring for Beverages. — The
coloring agents employed are fustic, saf-
fron, turmeric, quercitron, and the va-
rious aniline dyes. Here are some for-
mulas:
I. —Saffron. 1 ounce
Deodorized alco-
hol 4 fluidounces
Distilled water . .. 4 fluidounces
Mix alcohol and water, and then add
the saffron. Allow the mixture to stand
in a warm place for several days, shaking
occasionally; then filter. The tincture
thus prepared has a deep orange color,
and when diluted or used in small quan-
tities gives a beautiful yellow tint to
syrups, etc.
II. — Ground fustic
wood 1| ounces
Deodorized alco-
hol 4 fluidounces
Distilled water ... 4 fluidounces
This color may be made in the same
manner as the liquid saffron, and is a fine
coloring for many purposes.
III. — Turmeric powder. ... 2 ounces
Alcohol, dilute 16 ounces
Macerate for several days, agitating
frequently, and filter. For some bev-
erages the addition of this tincture is not
to be recommended, as it possesses a
very spicy taste.
The nonpoisonous aniline dyes rec-
ommended for coloring confectionery,
beverages, liquors, essences, etc., yellow
are those known as acid yellow R and
tropseolin 000 (orange I).
BICYCLE-TIRE CEMENT:
See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.
BICYCLE VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
120
BLEACHING
BIDERY METAL:
See Alloys.
BILLIARD BALLS:
See Ivory and Casein.
BIRCH BALSAM:
See Balsam.
BIRCH WATER:
See Hair Preparations.
BIRD DISEASES AND THEIR REM-
EDIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
BIRD FOODS:
See also Veterinary Formulas.
Mixed Birdseed.—
Canary seed 6 parts
Rape seed 2 parts
Maw seed 1 part
Millet seed 2 parts
Mocking-Bird Food.—
Cayenne pepper .... 2 ounces
Rape seed 8 ounces
Hemp seed 16 ounces
Corn meal 2 ounces
Rice 2 ounces
Cracker 8 ounces
Lard oil 2 ounces
Mix the solids, grinding to a coarse
powder, and incorporate the oil.
Food for Redbirds.—
Sunflower seed 8 ounces
Hemp seed 16 ounces
Canary seed 10 ounces
Wheat — 8 ounces
Rice 6 ounces
Mix and grind to coarse powder.
BIRD LIME:
See Lime.
BIRD PASTE:
See Canary-Bird Paste.
BISCHOFF :
See Wines and Liquors.
BISCUIT, DOG:
See Dog Biscuit.
BISMUTH ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
BISMUTH, PURIFICATION OF:
See Gold.
BITTERS :
See Wines and Liquors.
BITTER WATER:
See Waters.
BLACKING FOR HARNESS:
See Leather.
BLACKING FOR SHOES:
See Shoedressings.
BLACKING, STOVE:
See Stove Blackings and Polishes.
BLACKBERRY CORDIAL AND BLACK-
BERRY MIXTURE AS A CHOL-
ERA REMEDY:
See Cholera Remedy.
BLACKBOARD PAINT AND VARNISH :
See Paint and Varnish.
BLACKHEAD REMEDIES:
See Cosmetics.
BLANKET WASHING:
See Household Formulas.
BLASTING POWDER:
See Explosives.
Bleaching
Linen. — Mix common bleaching pow-
der in the proportion of 1 pound to a
gallon of water; stir it occasionally for
3 days, let it settle, and pour it off clear.
Then make a lye of 1 pound of soda to
1 gallon of boiling water, in which soak
the linen for 12 hours, and boil it half an
hour; next soak it in the bleaching
liquor, made as above; and lastly, wash
it in the usual manner. Discolored
linen or muslin may be restored by put-
ting a portion of bleaching liquor into
the tub wherein the articles are soaking.
Straw. — I. — Dip the straw in a solution
of oxygenated muriatic acid, saturated
with potash. (Cxyerenated muriate of
lime is much cheaper.) The straw is
thus rendered very white, and its flexi-
bility is increased.
II. — Straw is bleached by simply ex-
posing it in a closed chamber to the
fumes of burning sulphur. An old flour
barrel is the apparatus most used for the
purpose by milliners, a flat stone being
laid on the ground, the sulphur ignited
thereon, and the barrel containing the
goods to be bleached turned over it.
The goods should be previously washed
in pure water.
Wool, Silk, or Straw.— Mix together
4 pounds of oxalic acid, 4 pounds of
table salt, water 50 gallons. The goods
are laid in this mixture for 1 hour;
they are then generally well bleached,
and only require to be thoroughly rinsed
and worked. For bleaching straw it is
best to soak the goods in caustic soda,
and afterwards to make use of chloride
of lime or Javelle water. The excess of
BOILER COMPOUNDS
chlorine is afterwards removed by hypo-
sulphite of soda.
Feathers. — Place the feathers from
3 to 4 hours in a tepid dilute solution
of bichromate of potassa, to which,
cautiously, some nitric acid has been
added (a small quantity only). To
remove a greenish hue induced by this
solution, place them in a dilute solu-
tion of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby
the feathers become perfectly white and
bleached.
Bleaching Solution. — Aluminum hypo-
chloride, or Wilson's bleaching liquid, is
produced by adding to a clear solution of
lime chloride a solution of aluminum
sulphate (alumina, alum) as long as a
precipitate keeps forming. By mutual
decomposition aluminum chloride re-
sults, which remains in solution, and
lime sulphate (gypsum), which separates
out in the form of an insoluble salt.
BLIGHT REMEDIES.
I. — Soft soap 40 parts
Amyl alcohol 50 parts
Methylated spirit. 20 parts
Water 1,000 parts
II.— Soft soap 30 parts
Sulphureted pot-
ash 2 parts
Amyl alcohol 32 parts
Water 1,000 parts
III. — Soft soap 15 parts
Sulphureted pot-
ash 29 parts
Water 1,000 parts
BLEACHING SOLUTIONS FOR THE
LAUNDRY:
See Laundry Preparations.
BLEACHING SOLUTION FOR PHOTO-
GRAPHS:
See Photography.
BLEEDING, LOCAL:
See Styptics.
BLISTER CURE:
See Turpentine.
BLISTERS, FOR HORSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
BLOCK, HOLLOW CONCRETE
BUILDING :
See Stone, Artificial.
BLOCK FOR SOLDERING:
See Soldering.
BLOTTING PAPER:
See Paper.
BLUE FROM GREEN AT NIGHT, TO
DISTINGUISH :
To distinguish blue from green at
night, use either the light of a magnesium
wire for this purpose or take a number
of Swedish (parlor) matches, light them,
and as soon as they flash up, observe the
2 colors, when the difference can be easily
told.
BLUE (BALL) :
See Dyes.
BLUING:
See Laundry Preparations.
BLUING OF STEEL:
See Steel.
BLUE PRINTS, TO MAKE CHANGES
AND CORRECTIONS ON :
Use a solution of sodium carbonate
and water, with a little red ink mixed in.
This gives a very pleasing pink color to
the changes which, at the same time, is
very noticeable. The amount of sodium
carbonate used depends upon the sur-
face of the blue-print paper, as some
coarse-grained papers will look better if
less soda is used and vice versa. How-
ever, the amount of powdered soda held
on a small coin dissolved in a bottle of
water gives good results.
BLUE-PRINT PAPER MAKING:
See Photography.
BLUE PRINTS, TO TURN BROWN:
See Photography, under Toning.
BOIL REMEDY.
Take a piece of soft linen or borated
gauze, rub some vaseline upon one side
of it, quickly pour upon it some chloro-
form, apply it to the unopened boil or
carbuncle, and place a bandage over all.
It smarts a little at first, but this is soon
succeeded by a pleasing, cool sensation.
The patient is given a bottle of the rem-
edy, and directed to change the cloth
often. In from 2 hours to 1 day the
boil (no matter how indurated) softens
and opens.
Boiler Compounds
There are three chemicals which are
known to attack boiler scale. These are
caustic soda, soda ash, and tannic-acid
compounds, the last being derived from
sumac, catechu, and the exhausted bark
liquor from tanneries.
Caustic soda in large excess is inju-
rious to boiler fittings, gaskets, valves,
BOILER COMPOUNDS
etc. That it is injurious, in reasonable
excess, to the boiler tubes themselves is
yet to be proved. Foaming and priming
may be caused through excess of caustic
soda or soda ash, as is well known by
every practical engineer. Tannic acid
is to be condemned and the use of its
salts is not to be recommended. It may
unite with the organic matter, present in
the form of albuminoids, and with cal-
cium and magnesium carbonates. That
it removes scale is an assured fact; that
it removes iron with the scale is also
assured, as tannic acid corrodes an iron
surface rapidly.
Compounds of vegetable origin are
widely advertised, but they often contain
dextrine and gum, both of which are
dangerous, as they coat the tubes with a
compact scale, not permitting the water
to reach the iron. Molasses is acid and
should not be used in the boiler. Starch
substances generally should be avoided.
Kerosene must be dangerous, as it is
very volatile and must soon leave the
boiler and pass over and through the
engine.
There are two materials the use of
which in boilers is not prohibited through
action upon the metal itself or on ac-
count of price. These are soda ash and
caustic soda. Sodium triphosphate and
sodium fluoride have both been used with
success, but their cost is several hundred
per cent greater than soda ash. If pre-
scribed as per analysis, in slight excess,
there should be no injurious results
through the use of caustic soda and soda
ash. It would be practicable to manu-
facture an intimate mixture of caustic
soda and carbonate of soda, containing
enough of each to soften the average
water of a given district.
There is a great deal of fraud in con-
nection with boiler compounds gener-
ally. The better class of venders ad-
vertise to prepare a special compound for
special water. This is expensive, save on
a large scale, in reference to a partic-
ular water, for it would mean a score or
more of tanks with men to make up the
mixtures. The less honest of the boiler-
compound guild consign each sample of
water to the sewer and send the regular
goods. Others have a stock analysis
which is sent to customers of a given
locality, whether it contains iron, lime,
or magnesium sulphates or carbonates.
Any expense for softening water in
excess of 3 cents per 1,000 gallons is for
the privilege of using a ready-made soft-
ener. Every superintendent in charge
of a plant should insist that the com-
pound used be pronounced by competent
authority free from injurious materials,
and that it be adapted to the water in
use.
Boiler compounds should contain only
such ingredients as will neutralize the
scale-forming salts present. They should
be used only by prescription, so many
gallons per 1,000 gallons of feed water.
A properly proportioned mixture of soda
ought to answer the demands of all plants
depending upon that method of softening
water in limestone and shale regions.
The honest boiler compounds are,
however, useful for small isolated plants,
because of the simplicity of their action.
For plants of from 75 to 150 horse power
two 24-hour settling tanks will answer
the purpose of a softening system. Each
of these, capable of holding a day's sup-
ply, provided with a soda tank in com-
mon, a,nd with sludge valves, has pad-
dles for stirring the contents. Large
plants are operated on this principle,
serving boilers of many thousand horse
power. Such a system has an advan-
tage over a continuous system, in that
the exact amount of chemical solutions
required for softening the particular
water can be applied. For some varia-
tions of such a system, several companies
have secured patents. The fundamen-
tal principles, nowever, have been used
for many years and are not patentable.
Prevention of Boiler Scale. — The lime
contained in the feed water, either as bi-
carbonate or as sulphate, is precipitated
in the shape of a light mud, but the walls
of the boiler remain perfectly bright
without being attacked in any manner.
While under ordinary atmospheric pres-
sure calcium chromate in solution is pre-
cipitated by soda or Glauber's salt as
calcium carbonate or as calcium sul-
Ehate; the latter is separated under
igher pressure by chromates as calcium
chromate. An excess of chromates or
chromic acid does not exercise any dele-
terious action upon the metal, nor upon
the materials used for packing. By the
slight admixture of chromates, two
pounds are sufficient for a small boiler
for weeks; no injurious ingredients are
carried in by the wet steam, the injection
water, on the contrary, having been
found to be chemically pure.
Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale. —
I. — For a 5-horsc-power boiler, fed
with water which contains calcic sul-
phate, take catechu, 2 pounds; dex-
trine, 1 pound; crystallized soda, 2
pounds; potash, £ pound; cane sugar, £
pound; alum, J pound; gum arabic, £
pound.
BOILER COMPOUNDS
II. — For a boiler of the same size, fed
with water which contains lime: Tur-
meric, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; so-
dium bicarbonate, 2 pounds; potash, £
pound; alum, £ pound; molasses, |
pound.
III. — For a boiler of the same size, fed
with water which contains iron: Gam-
boge, 2 pounds; soda, 2 pounds; dex-
trine, 1 pound; potash, V pound; sugar,
£ pound; alum, A pound; gum arabic, £
pound.
IV. — For a boiler of the same size, fed
with sea water: Catechu, 2 pounds;
Glauber's salt, 2 pounds; dextrine, 2
pounds; alum, £ pound; gum arabic, £
pound.
When these preparations are used add
1 quart of water, and in ordinary cases
charge the boiler every month; but if the
incrustation is very bad, charge every
two weeks.
V. — Place within the boiler of 100
horse power 1 bucketful of washing soda;
put in 2 gallons of kerosene oil (after
closing the blow-off cock), and fill the
boiler with water. Feed in at least 1
quart of kerosene oil every day through a
sight-feed oil cup attached to the feed
Eipe near the boiler— i. e., between the
eater and the boiler — so that the oil is
not entrapped within the heater. If it
is inconvenient to open the boiler, then
dissolve the washing soda in hot water
and feed it in with the pump or through a
tallow cock (attached between the eject-
or and the valve in the suction pipe)
when the ejector is working.
VI. — A paint for protecting boiler plates
from scale, and patented in Germany, is
composed of 10 pounds each of train oil,
horse fat, paraffine, and of finely ground
zinc white. To this mixture is added 40
pounds of graphite and 10 pounds of
soot made together into a paste with
1£ gallons of water, and about a pound
of carbolic acid. The horse fat and the
zinc oxide make a soap difficult to fuse,
which adheres strongly to the plates, and
binds the graphite and the soot. The
paraffine prevents the water from pene-
trating the coats. The scale which forms
on this application can be detached, it is
said, with a wooden mallet, without in-
juring the paint.
VII. — M. E. Asselin, of Paris, recom-
mends the use of glycerine as a preventive.
It increases the solubility of combinations
of lime, and especially of the sulphate.
It forms with these combinations soluble
compounds. When the quantity of lime
becomes so great that it can no longer
be dissolved, nor form soluble combina-
tions, it is deposited in a gelatinous sub-
stance, which never adheres to the sur-
face of the iron plates. The gelatinous
substances thus formed are not carried
with the steam into the cylinder of the
engine. M. Asselin advises the employ-
ment of 1 pound of glycerine for every
300 pounds or 400 pounds of coal burnt.
Prevention of Electrolysis. — In order
to prevent the eating away of the sheets
and tubes by electrolytic action, it has
long been the practice of marine engi-
neers to suspend slabs of zinc in their
boilers. The zinc, being more suscepti-
ble to the electrolytic action than the
iron, is eaten away, while the iron re-
mains unimpaired. The use of zinc in
this way has been found also to reduce
the trouble from boiler scale. Whether
it be due to the formation of hydrogen
bubbles between the heating surfaces
and incipient scale, to the presence in the
water of the zinc salts resulting from the
dissolution of the zinc, or to whatever
cause, it appears to be a general conclu-
sion among those who have used it that
the zinc helps the scale, as well as the
corrosion. Nobody has ever claimed
for it that it prevented the attachment of
scale altogether, but the consensus of
opinion is that it "helps some."
BOILER PRESSURE.
It hardly pays to reduce pressure on
boilers, except in very extreme cases, but
if it can be done by throttling before the
steam reaches the cylinder of the engine
it would be an advantage, because this
retains the heat units due to the higher
pressure in the steam, and the throttling
has a slight superheating effect. As a
matter of fact, tests go to show that for
light loads and high pressure a throt-
tling engine may do better than an auto-
matic cut-off. The ideal arrangement
is to throttle the steam for light loads; for
heavier loads, allow the variable cut-off
to come into play. This practice has
been carried into effect by tne design of
Mr. E. J. Armstrong, in which he ar-
ranges the shaft governor so that there is
negative lead up to nearly one-quarter
cut-off, after which the lead becomes
positive, and this has the effect of throt-
tling the steam for the earlier loads and
undoubtedly gives better economy, in
addition to making the engine run more
quietly.
BONE BLACK :
Bone or Ivory Black. — All bones (and
ivory is bone in a sense) consist of a
framework of crystallized matter or
bone earth, in the interstices of which
organic matter is embedded. Hence if
BONE BLACK
bones are heated red-hot in a closed
vessel, the organic matter is destroyed,
leaving carbon, in a finely divided state,
lodged in the bony framework. If the
heat is applied gradually the bone re-
tains its shape, but is quite black and of
much less weight than at first. This
bone black or animal charcoal is a sub-
stance which has great power of absorb-
ing coloring matter from liquids, so that
it is largely used for bleaching such liquids.
For example, in the vast industry of beet-
sugar manufacture the solutions first
made are very dark in color, but after fil-
tration through animal charcoal will give
colorless crystals on evaporation. Chem-
ical trades require such large quantities
of bone charcoal that its production is
a large industry in itself. As in breaking
up the charred bones a considerable
amount of waste is produced, in the form
of dust and small grains which cannot be
used for bleaching purposes, this waste
should be worked up into a pigment.
This is done by dissolving out the mineral
with hydrochloric acid, and then rinsing
and drying the carbon.
The mineral basis of bones consists
mainly of the phosphates of lime and
magnesia, salts soluble in not too dilute
hydrochloric acid. A vat is half filled
with the above-mentioned waste, which
is then just covered with a mixture of
equal volumes of commercial hydro-
chloric acid and water. As the mineral
matter also contains carbonates, a lively
effervescence at once ensues, and small
quantities of hydrofluoric acid are also
formed from the decomposition of cal-
cium fluoride in the bones. Now hydro-
fluoric acid is a very dangerous sub-
stance, as air containing even traces of it
is very injurious to the lungs. Hence the
addition of hydrochloric acid should be
done in the open air, and the vat should
be left by itself until the evolution of
fumes ceases. A plug is then pulled out
at the bottom and the carbon is thor-
oughly drained. It is then stirred up
with water and again drained, when it
has fully settled to the bottom. This
rinsing with clear water is repeated till all
the hydrochloric acid is washed away
and only pure carbon remains in the vat.
As for pigment-making purposes it is
essential that the carbon should be as
finely divided as possible, it is as well to
grind the washed carbon in an ordinary
color mill. Very little power is required
for this purpose, as when once the bone
earth is removed the carbon particles
have little cohesion. The properly
ground mass forms a deep-black mud,
which can be left to dry or be dried by
artificial heat. When dry, the purified
bone black is of a pure black and makes
a most excellent pigment.
Bone black is put upon the market
under all sorts of names, such as ivory
black, ebur ustum, Frankfort black, neu-
tral black, etc. All these consist of
finely ground bone black purified from
mineral matter. If leather scraps or
dried blood are to be worked up, iron
tubes are employed, closed at one end,
and with a well-fitting lid with a small
hole in it at the other. As these bodies
give off large volumes of combustible
gas during the charring, it is a good plan
to lead the vapors from the hole by a
bent tube so that they can be burnt and
help to supply the heat required and so
save fuel. Leather or blood gives a char-
coal which hardly requires treatment
with hydrochloric acid, for the amount
of mineral salts present is so small that
its removal appears superfluous.
BONES, A TEST FOR BROKEN.
Place a stethoscope on one side of the
supposed fracture, and a tuning fork on
the other. When the latter is vibrated,
and there is no breakage, the sound will
be heard distinctly through bone and
stethoscope. Should any doubt exist,
comparison should be made with the
same bone on the other side of the body.
This test shows the difference in the
power of conducting sound possessed by
bone and soft tissue.
BONE BLEACHES:
See Ivory.
BONE FAT:
See Fats.
BONE FAT, PURIFICATION AND
BLEACHING OF:
See Soap.
BONE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BONE FERTILIZERS:
See Fertilizers.
BONES, TREATMENT OF, IN MANU-
FACTURING GLUE:
See Adhesives.
BONE, UNITING GLASS WITH:
See Adhesives.
BOOKS, THEIR HANDLING AND
PRESERVATION :
The Preservation of Books in Hot
Climates. — Books in hot climates quickly
deteriorate unless carefully guarded.
There are three destructive agencies:
(1) damp, (2) a small black insect, (3)
cockroaches.
BOOKS
125
(1) Books which are kept in a damp
atmosphere deteriorate on account of
molds and fungi that grow rapidly when
the conditions are favorable. Books
are best kept on open, airy, well-lighted
shelves. When there has been a pro-
longed spell of moist weather their covers
should be wiped, and they should be
placed in the sun or before a fire for a
few hours. Damp also causes the bind-
ings and leaves of some books to sep-
arate.
(2) A small black insect, one-eighth of
an inch long and a sixteenth of an inch
broad, somewhat resembling a beetle, is
very destructive, and books will be
found, if left untouched, after a few
months to have numerous holes in the
covers and leaves. If this insect be al-
lowed plenty of time for its ravages it
will make so many holej that bindings
originally strong can be easily torn to
pieces. All damage may be prevented
by coating the covers of books with the
varnish described under (3). When
books are found to Contain the insects
they should be well wrapped and placed
in the sun before varnishing.
(3) The appearance of a fine binding
may be destroyed in a single night by
cockroaches. The lettering of the bind-
ing may, in two or three days, be com-
pletely obliterated.
The following varnishes have been found
to prevent effectually the ravages of
cockroaches and of all insects that feed
upon books:
I. — Dammar resin 2 ounces
Mastic 2 ounces
Canada balsam 1 ounce
Creosote $ ounce
Spirit of wine 20 fl. ounces
Macerate with occasional shaking for
a few days if wanted at once, but for a
longer time when possible, as a better
varnish will result after a maceration of
several months.
II. — Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce; car-
bolic acid, 1 ounce; methylated or rum
spirit, 1 quart.
Where it is necessary to keep books or
paper of any description in boxes, cup-
boards, or closed bookcases, some naph-
thalene balls or camphor should be al-
ways present with them. If camphor
be used it is best to wrap it in paper,
otherwise it volatilizes more quickly than
is necessary. In dry weather the doors
of closed bookcases should be left open
occasionally, as a damp, still atmosphere
is most favorable for deterioration.
How to Open a Book.— Never force the
back of the book. Hold the book with
its back on a smooth or covered table;
let the front board down, then the other,
holding the leaves in one hand while you
open a few leaves at the back, then a few
at the front, and so on, alternately open-
ing back and front, gently pressing open
the sections till you reach the center of
the volume. Do this two or three times
and you will obtain the best results.
Open the volume violently or carelessly
in any one place and you will probably
break the back or cause a start in the
leaves.
BOOK DISINFECTANT:
See Disinfectants.
BOOKS, TO REMOVE FINGER-MARKS
FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BOOKBINDERS' VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
BOOKWORMS :
See Insecticides.
BOOT DRESSINGS:
See Shoe Dressings.
BOOT LUBRICANT:
See Lubricant.
BOOTS, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
BORAX FOR SPRINKLING.
I. — Sprinkling borax is not only
cheaper, but also dissolves less in solder-
ing than pure borax.
The borax is heated in a metal vessel
until it has lost its water of crystallization
and mixed with calcined cooking salt
and potash — borax, 8 parts; cooking
salt, 3 parts; potash, 3 parts. Next i;
is pounded in a mortar into a fine pow-
der, constituting the sprinkling borax.
II. — Another kind of sprinkling borax
is prepared by substituting glass-gall for
the potash. Glass-gall is the froth float-
ing on the melted glass, which can be
skimmed off.
The borax is either dusted on in pow-
der form from a sprinkling box or
stirred with water before use into a thin
paste.
BORAX AND BORIC ACID IN FOOD :
See Food.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE:
See Insecticides.
BOROTONIC :
See Dentifrices.
126
BOTTLES
BOTTLE-CAP LACQUER:
See Lacquer.
BOTTLE CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
BOTTLE STOPPERS:
See Stoppers.
BOTTLE VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
BOTTLE WAX:
See Photography.
BOUILLON :
See Beverages.
BOURBON METALS:
See Alloys.
BOWLS OF FIRE TRICK:
See Pyrotechnics.
BOX GLUE:
See Adhesives.
BRAGA:
See Beverages.
BRAN, SAWDUST IN.
For the detection of sawdust in bran
use a solution of 1 part of phloroglucin
in 15 parts of alcohol, 15 parts of water,
and 10 parts of syrupy phosphoric acid.
Place 2 parts of the solution in a small
porcelain dish, add a knifepointful of
the bran and heat moderately. Saw-
dust is dyed red while bran parts only
seldom acquire a faint red color. By a
microscopic examination of the reddish
parts, sawdust will be readily recognized.
Bottles
Magic Bottles. —
The mystery of the "wonderful bot-
tle," from which can be poured in suc-
cession port wine, sherry, claret, water,
champagne, or ink, at the will of the op-
erator, is easily explained. The mate-
rials consist of an ordinary dark-colored
pint wine bottle, seven wine glasses
of different patterns, and the chemicals
described below:
Solution A: A mixture of tincture of
ferric chloride, drachms vi; hydro-
chloric acid, drachms ii.
Solution B: Saturated solution of am-
monium sulphocyanide, drachm i.
Solution C: Strong solution of ferric
chloride, drachm i.
Solution D: A weak solution of am-
monium sulphocyanide.
Solution E: Concentrated solution of
lead acetate.
Solution F: Solution of ammonium
sulphide, drachm i; or pyrogallic acid,
drachm i.
Package G: Pulverized potassium bi-
carbonate, drachm iss.
Having poured two teaspoonfuls of
solution A into the wine bottle, treat the
wine glasses with the different solutions,
noting and remembering into which
? lasses the several solutions are placed,
nto No. 1 wine glass pour one or two
drops of solution B; into No. 2 glass
pour one or two drops of solution C; into
No. 3 one or two drops of Solution D;
leave No. 4 glass empty; into No. 5 glass
pour a few drops of Solution E; into No.
6 glass place a few grains of Package G;
into No. 7 glass pour a little of solution F.
Request some one to bring you some
cold drinking water, and to guarantee
that it is pure show that your wine bot-
tle is (practically) empty. Fill it up
from the carafe, and having asked the
audience whether you shall produce wine
or water, milk or ink, etc., you may ob-
tain any of these by pouring a little of
the water from the bottle into the pre-
pared glass. Thus No. 1 glass gives a
port-wine color; No. 2 gives a sherry
color; No. 3 gives a claret color; No. 4 is
left empty to prove that the solution in
the bottle is colorless; No. 5 produces
milk; No. 6, effervescing champagne:
No. 7, ink.
Bottle-Capping Mixtures. —
I. — Soak 7 pounds of good gelatin in
10 ounces of glycerine and 60 ounces of
water, and heat over a water bath until
dissolved, and add any desired color.
Pigments may be used, and various tints
can be obtained by the use of aniline
colors. The resulting compound should
be stored in jars. To apply liquefy the
mass and dip the cork and portion of
the neck of the bottle into the liquid; it
sets very quickly.
II. — Gelatin... 1 ounce
Gum arabic 1 ounce
Boric acid 20 grains
Starch 1 ounce
Water 16 fluidounces
Mix the gelatin, gum arabic, and
boric acid with 14 fluidounces of cold
water, stir occasionally until the gum is
dissolved, heat the mixture to boiling,
remove the scum, and strain. Also mix
the starch intimately with the remainder
of the water, and stir this mixture into
the hot gelatin mixture until a uniform
product results. As noted above, the
composition may be tinted with any suit-
able dye. Before using, it must be soft-
ened by the application of heat.
BRASS
'127
III.— Shellac .. . 3 ounces
Venice turpentine 14 ounces
Boric acid 72 grains
Powdered talcum. 3 ounces
Ether 6 fluidrams
Alcohol 12^ fluidounces
Dissolve the shellac, turpentine, and
boric acid in the mixed alcohol and ether,
color with a spirit-soluble dye, and add
the talcum. During use the mixture
must be agitated frequently.
Show Bottles.—
I. — Place in a cylindrical bottle the
following liquids in the order named:
First, sulphuric acid, tinted blue with
indigo; second, chloroform; third, glyc-
erine, slightly tinted with caramel;
fourth, castor oil, colored with alkanet
root; fifth, 40-per-cent alcohol, slightly
tinted with aniline green; sixth, cod-
liver oil, containing 1 per cent of oil of
turpentine. The liquids are held in
place by force of gravity, and alternate
with fluids which are not miscible, so
that the strata of layers are clearly de-
fined and do not mingle by diffusion.
II. — Chromic acid 1 drachm
Commercial "muri-
atic" acid 2 ounces
Nitric acid 2 ounces
Water, enough to
make 3 gallons
The color is magenta.
The following makes a fine pink for
show carboys:
III.— Cobalt oxide 2 parts
Nitric acid, c. p 1 part
Hydrochloric acid.. .. 1 part
Mix and dissolve, and to the solution
add:
Strongest water of
ammonia. . 6 parts
Sulphuric acid 1 part
Water, distilled, q. s.
to make 400 parts
This should be left standing in a dark,
cool place for at least a month before put-
ting in the window.
IV. — Green. — Copper sulphate, 300
parts, by weight; hydrochloric acid, 450
parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500
parts, by weight.
V.— Blue.— Copper sulphate, 480 parts,
by weight; sulphuric acid, 60 parts, by
weight; distilled water, to 450 parts, by
weight.
VI. — Yellowish Brown. — Potassium
dichromate, 120 parts, by weight; nitric
acid, 150 parts, by weight; distilled wa-
ter, to 4,500 parts, by weight.
VII. — Yellow. — Potassium dichromate,
30 parts, by weight; sodium bicarbon-
ate, 225 parts, by weight; distilled water,
to 4,500 parts, by weight.
VIII. — Red. — Liquid ferric chloride,
officinal, 60 parts, by weight: co: cen-
trated ammonium-acetate solution, 120
parts, by weight; acetic acid, 30 per
cent, 30 parts, by weight; distilled water,
to 9,000 parts, by weight.
IX. — Crimson. — Potassium iodide, 7.5
parts, by weight; iodine, 7.5 parts, by
weight; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts, by
weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts,
by weight.
All the solutions IV to IX should be
filtered. If distilled water be used these
solutions should keep for five to ten years.
In order to prevent them from freezing,
either add 10 per cent of alcohol, or re-
duce the quantity of water by 10 per cent.
A Cheap and Excellent Warming
Bottle. — Mix sodium acetate and sodium
hyposulphate in the proportion of 1 part
of the former to 9 parts of the latter, and
with the mixture fill an earthenware bottle
about three-quarters full. Close the ves-
sel well with a cork and place it either
in hot water or in the oven, and let re-
main until the salts within melt. For
at least a half day the jug will radiate its
heat, and need only be well shaken from
time to time to renew its heat-giving
energy.
Bottle Deodorizer. — Powdered ' black
mustard seed is successfully employed.
Pour a little of it with some lukewarm
water into the receptacle, rinsing it after-
wards with water. If necessary, repeat
the process.
BRANDY AND BRANDY BITTERS
See Wines and Liquors.
Brass
Formulas for the making of Brass will be
found under Alloys.
Colors for Polished Brass. — The brass
objects are put into boiling solutions
composed of different salts, and the in-
tensity of the shade obtained is depend-
ent upon the duration of the immersion.
WTith a solution composed of
Sulphate of copper. . . 120 grains
Hydrochlorate of am-
monia 30 grains
Water 1 quart
greenish shades are obtained. With the
following solution all the shades of brown
from orange brown to cinnamon are ob-
tained:
128
BRASS
Chlorate of potash . . . 150 grains
Sulphate of copper. . . 150 grains
Water 1 quart
The following solution gives the brass
first a rosy tint and then colors it violet
and blue:
Sulphate of copper. . . 435 grains
Hyposulphite of soda 300 grains
Cream of tartar 150 grains
Water 1 pint
Upon adding to the last solution
Ammoniacal sulphate
of iron 300 grains
Hyposulphite of soda 300 grains
there are obtained, according to the dura-
tion of the immersion, yellowish, orange,
rosy, then bluish shades. Upon polar-
izing the ebullition the blue tint gives
way to yellow, and finally to a pretty
gray. Silver, under the same circum-
stances, becomes very beautifully col-
ored. After a long ebullition in the
following solution we obtain a yellow-
brown shade, and then a remarkable fire
red:
Chlorate of potash ... 75 grains
Carbonate of nickel . . 30 grains
Salt of nickel 75 grains
Water 16 ounces
The following solution gives a beau-
tiful, dark-brown color:
Chlorate of potash . . 75 grains
Salt of nickel 150 grains
Water 10 ounces
The following gives, in the first place;
a red, which passes to blue, then to pale
lilac, and finally to white:
Orpiment. 75 grains
Crystallized sal sodae 150 grains
Water 10 ounces
The following gives a yellow brown:
Salt of nickel 75 grains
Sulphate of copper. . 75 grains
Chlorate of potash . . 75 grains
Water 10 ounces
On mixing the following solutions,
sulphur separates and the brass becomes
covered with iridescent crystallizations:
I. — Cream of tartar 75 grains
Sulphate of copper. . 75 grains
Water 10 ounces
II. — Hyposulphite of soda 225 grains
Water 5 ounces
Upon leaving the brass objects im-
mersed in the following mixture con-
tained in corked vessels they at length
acquire a very beautiful blue color:
Hepar of sulphur .... 15 grains
Ammonia 75 grains
Water 4 ounces
Miscellaneous Coloring of Brass. —
Yellow to bright red: Dissolve 2 parts
native copper carbonate with 1 part
caustic soda in 10 parts water. Dip for
a few minutes into the liquor, the va-
rious shades desired being obtained
according to the length of time of the
immersion. Green: Dissolve 1 part cop-
per acetate (verdigris), 1 part blue
vitriol, and 1 part alum in 10 parts of
water and boil the articles therein.
Black: For optical articles, photographic
apparatus, plates, rings, screws, etc.,
dissolve 45 parts of malachite (native
copper carbonate) in 1,000 parts of sal
ammoniac. For use clean and remove
the grease from the article by pickling
and dip it into the bath until the coating
is strong enough. The bath operates
better and quicker if heated. Should
the oxidation be a failure it should be
removed by dipping into the brass
pickle.
A verdigris color on brass is produced
by treating the articles with dilute acids,
acetic acid, or sulphuric acid, and drying.
Brown in all varieties of shades is ob-
tained by immersing the metal in solu-
tions of nitrates or ferric chloride after
it has been corroded with dilute nitric
acid, cleaned with sand and water, and
dried. The strength of the solutions
governs the deepness of the resulting
color.
Violet is caused by immersing the thor-
oughly cleaned objects in a solution of
ammonium chloride.
Chocolate color results if red ferric
oxide is strewn on and burned off, fol-
lowed by polishing with a small quantity
of galena.
Olive green is produced by blacken-
ing the surface with a solution of iron in
hydrochloric acid, polishing with galena,
and coating hot with a lacquer composed
of 1 part varnish, 4 parts cincuma, and 1
part gamboge.
A steel-blue coloring is obtained by
means of a dilute boiling solution of
chloride of arsenic, and a blue one by a
treatment with strong hyposulphite of
soda. Another formula for bluing
brass is: Dissolve 10 parts of antimony
chloride in 200 parts of water, and add 30
parts of pure hydrochloric acid. Dip the
article until it is well blued, then wash
and dry in sawdust.
Black is much used for optical brass
articles and is produced by coating with
a solution of platinum or auric chloride
mixed with nitrate of tin.
Coloring Unpolished Brass. — A yellow
color of handsome effect is obtained on
BRASS
129
unpolished brass by means of antimony-
chloride solution. This is produced by
finely powdering gray antimony and boil-
ing it with hydrochloric acid. With
formation of hydrogen sulphide a solu-
tion of antimony results, which must not
be diluted with water, since a white pre-
cipitate of antimony oxychloride is im-
mediately formed upon admixture of
water. For dilution, completely satu-
rated cooking-salt solution is employed,
using for 1 part of antimony chloride 2
parts of salt solution.
Coloring Fluid for Brass. — Caustic
soda, 33 parts; water, 24 parts; hydraled
carbonate of copper, 5.5 parts.
Dissolve the salt in water and dip the
metal in the solution obtained. The in-
tensity of the color will be proportional
to the time of immersion. After remov-
ing the object from the liquid, rinse with
water and dry in sawdust.
Black Color on Brass. — A black or ox-
idized surface on brass is produced by a
solution of carbonate of copper in am-
monia. The work is immersed and al-
lowed to remain until the required tint
is observed. The carbonate of copper is
best used in a plastic condition, as it is
then much more easily dissolved. Plas-
tic carbonate of copper may be .mixed as
follows: Make a solution of blue vitriol
(sulphate of copper) in hot water, and
add a strong solution of common washing
soda to it as long as any precipitate
forms. The precipitate is allowed to
settle, and the clear liquid is poured off.
Hot water is added, and the mass stirred
and again allowed to settle. This oper-
ation is repeated six or eight times to re-
move the impurities. After the water
has been removed during the last pour-
ing, and nothing is left but an emulsion
of the thick plastic carbonate in a small
quantity of water, liquid ammonia is
added until everything is dissolved and a
clear, deep-blue liquid is produced. If
too strong, water may be added, but a
strong solution is better than a weak one.
If it is desired to make the solution from
commercial plastic carbonate of copper
the following directions may be followed:
Dissolve 1 pound of the plastic carbonate
of copper in 2 gallons of strong ammonia.
This gives the required strength of so-
lution.
The brass which it is desired to black-
en is first boiled in a strong potash solu-
tion to remove grease and oil, then well
rinsed and dipped in the copper solution,
which has previously been heated to
from 150° to 175° F. This solution, if
heated too hot, gives off all the ammonia.
The brass is left in the solution until the
required tint is produced. The color
produced is uniform, black, and tena-
cious. The brass is rinsed and dried in
sawdust. A great variety of effects may
be produced by first finishing the brass
before blackening, as the oxidizing proc-
ess does not injure the texture of the
metal. A satisfactory finish is produced
by first rendering the surface of the
brass matt, either by scratch-brush or
similar methods, as the black finish thus
produced by the copper solution is dead
— one of the most pleasing effects of an
oxidized surface. Various effects may also
be produced by coloring the entire article
and then buffing the exposed portions.
The best results in the use of this so-
lution are obtained by the use of the so-
called red metals — i. e., those in which
the copper predominates. The reason
for this is obvious. Ordinary sheet brass
consists of about 2 parts of copper and 1
part of zinc, so that the large quantity of
the latter somewhat hinders the produc-
tion of a deep-black surface. Yellow
brass is colored black by the solution,
but it is well to use some metal having a
reddish tint, indicating the presence of a
large amount of copper. The varieties
of sheet brass known as gilding or bronze
work well. Copper also gives excellent
results. Where the best results are de-
sired on yellow brass a very light electro-
plate of copper before the oxidizing
works well and gives an excellent black.
With the usual articles made of yellow
brass this is rarely done, but the oxida-
tion carried out directly.
Black Finish for Brass. — I. — A hand-
some black finish may be put on brass
by the following process: Dissolve in
1,000 parts of ammonia water 45 parts of
natural malachite, and in the solution put
the object to be blackened, after first
having carefully and thoroughly cleaned
the same. After letting it stand a short
time gradually warm the mixture, ex-
amining the article from time to time
to ascertain if the color is deep enough.
Rinse and let dry.
II. — The blacking of brass may be
accomplished by immersing it in the fol-
lowing solution and then heating over
a Bunsen burner or a spirit flame:
Add a saturated solution of ammo-
nium carbonate to a saturated copper-
sulphate solution, until the precipitate
resulting in the beginning has almost en-
tirely dissolved. The immersion and
heating are repeated until the brass
turns dark; then it is brushed and dipped
in negative varnish or dull varnish.
130
BRASS
To Give a Brown Color to Brass. — I. —
In 1.000 parts oi rain or distilled water
dissolve 5 parts each of verdigris (copper
acetate) and ammonium chloride. Let
the solution stand 4 hours, then add 1,500
parts of water. Remove the brass to be
Drowned from its attachment to the fix-
tures and make the surface perfectly
bright and smooth and free from grease.
Place it over a charcoal fire and heat un-
til it "sizzes" when touched with the
dampened finger. The solution is then
painted over the surface with a brush or
, swabbed on with a rag. If one swab-
bing does not produce a sufficient depth
of color, repeat the heating and the ap-
plication of the liquid until a fine durable
brown is produced. For door plates,
knobs, and ornamental fixtures gener-
ally, this is one of the handsomest as well
as the most durable surfaces, and is
easily applied.
II. — A very handsome brown may be
produced on brass castings by immersing
the thoroughly cleaned and dried articles
in a warm solution of 15 parts of sodium
hydrate and 5 parts of cupric carbonate
in 100 parts of water. The metal turns
dark yellow, light brown, and finally
dark brown, with a greenish shimmer,
and, when the desired shade is reached,
is taken out of the bath, rinsed, and dried.
III. — Paint the cleaned and dried sur-
face uniformly with a dilute solution of
ammonium sulphide. When this coat-
ing is dry, it is rubbed over, and then
painted with a dilute ammoniacal so-
lution of arsenic sulphide, until the
required depth of color is attained.
If the results are not satisfactory the
painting can be repeated after washing
over with ammonia. Prolonged im-
mersion in the second solution produces
a grayish-green film, which looks well,
and acquires luster when polished with
a cloth.
Refinishing Gas Fixtures. — Gas fix-
tures which have become dirty or tar-
nished from use may be improved in ap-
pearance by painting with bronze paint
and then, if a still better finish is re-
quired, varnishing after the paint is
thoroughly dry with some light-colored
varnish that will give a hard and brilliant
coating.
If the bronze paint is made up with
ordinary varnish it is liable to become
discolored from acid which may be pres-
ent in the varnish. One method pro-
posed tor obviating this is to mix the
varnish with about five times its volume
of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture
dried sJaked lime in the proportion of
about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well,
repeating the agitation several times, and
finally allowing the suspended matter to
settle and decanting the clear liquid.
The object of this is to neutralize any
acid which may be present. To deter-
mine how effectively this has been done
the varnish may be chemically tested.
Steel Blue and Old Silver on Brass.—
For the former dissolve 100 parts of car-
bonic carbonate in 750 parts of ammonia
and dilute this solution with distilled
water, whereupon the cleaned articles
are dipped into the liquid by means of a
brass wire. After two to three minutes
take them out, rinse in clean water, and
dry in sawdust. Old silver on brass is
produced as follows: The articles are
first silvered and next painted with a thin
paste consisting of graphite, 6 parts;
pulverized hematite, 1 part; and tur-
pentine. Use a soft brush and dry well;
then brush off the powder. Oxidized
silver is obtained by dipping the silvered
goods into a heated solution of liver of
sulphur, 5 parts; ammonia carbonate, 10
parts; and water, 10, 000 parts. Only sub-
stantially silvered objects are suited for
oxidation, as a weak silvering is taken
cff by this solution. Unsatisfactory col-
oring is removed with potassium-cya-
nide solution. It is advisable to lay the
articles in hydrogen sulphide-ammonia
solution diluted with water,wherein they
acquire a blue to a deep-black shade.
Tombac Color on Brass. — This is pro-
duced by immersion in a mixture of cop-
per carbonate, 10 parts; caustic soda, 30
parts; water, 200 parts. This layer will
only endure wiping with a cloth, not vig-
orous scouring with sand.
Graining of Brass. — Brass parts of
timepieces are frequently provided with
a dead grained surface. For this pur-
pose they are fastened with flat-headed
pins on cork disks and brushed with a
paste of water and finest powdered
pumice stone. Next they are thor-
oughly washed and placed in a solution
of 10 quarts of water, 30 grains of mer-
curic nitrate, and 60 grains of sulphuric
acid. In this amalgamating solution
the objects become at once covered with
a layer of mercury, which forms an amal-
gam with the copper, while the zinc
passes into solution. After the articles
have again been washed they are treated
with graining powder, which consists of
silver powder, tartar, and cooking salt.
These substances must be pure, dry, and
very finely pulverized. The mixing is
done with moderate heat. According
BRASS
131
co whether a coarser or finer grain is de-
sired, more cooking salt or more tartar
must be contained in the powder. The
ordinary proportions are:
Silver powder.. 28 28 28 parts
Tartar. 283 110-140 85 parts
Cooking salt. .. 900 370 900 parts
This powder is moistened with water
and applied to the object. Place the article
with the cork support in a flat dish and
rub on the paste with a stiff brush while
turning the !ish incessantly. Gradu-
ally fresh portions of graining powder
are put on until the desired grain is ob-
tained. These turn out the rounder the
more the dish and brush are turned.
When the right grain is attained, rinse
off with water, and treat the object with
a scratch brush, with employment of a
decoction of saponaria. The brushes
must be moved around in a circle in
brushing with the pumice stone, as well
as in rubbing on the graining powder
and in using the scratch brush. The
required silver powder is produced by
precipitating a diluted solution of silver
nitrate with some strips of sheet copper.
The precipitated silver powder is washed
out on a paper filter and dried at moder-
ate heat.
The Dead, or Matt, Dip for Brass.—
The dead dip is used to impart a satiny
or crystalline finish to the surface. The
bright dip gives a smooth, shiny, and per-
fectly even surface, but the dead dip is
the most pleasing of any dip finish, and
can be used as a base for many secondary
finishes.
The dead dip is a mixture of oil of
vitriol (sulphuric acid) and aqua fortis
(nitric acid) in which there is enough
sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) to saturate
the solution. It is in the presence of the
sulphate of zinc tnat the essential differ-
ence between the bright and the dead dip
exists. Without it the dead or matt sur-
face cannot be obtained.
The method generally practiced is to
add the sulphate of zinc to the mixed
acids (sulphuric and nitric), so that some
remains undissolved in the bottom of the
vessel. It is found that the sulphate of
zinc occurs in small crystals having the
appearance of very coarse granulated
sugar. These crystals readily settle to the
bottom of the vessel and do not do the
work of matting properly. If they are
finely pulverized the dip is slightly im-
proved, but it is impossible to pulverize
such material to a fineness that will do
the desired work. The use of sulphate
of zinc, then, leaves much to be desired.
The most modern method of making
up the dead dip is to produce the sul-
phate of zinc directly in the solution
and in the precipitated form. It is well
known that the most finely divided ma-
terials are those which are produced by
precipitation, and ?n the dead dip it is
very important ha* h? sulphate of zinc
shall be finely d;v did so that it will not
immediately settle to he bottc m. There-
fore it chould be precipitated so that
when it is mixed with the acids it will not
settle immediately. The method of mak-
ing the sulphate of zinc directly in the
solution is as follows:
Take 1 gallon of yellow aqua fortis
(38° F.) and place in a stone crock
which is surrounded with cold water.
The cold water is to keep the heat,
formed by the reaction, from evaporating
the acid. Add metallic zinc in small
pieces until the acid will dissolve no
more. The zinc may be in any conven-
ient form — sheet clippings, lumps, gran-
ulated, etc., that may be added little by
little. If all is added at once it will boil
over. ^When the acid will dissolve no
more zinc it will be found that some of
the acid has evaporated by the heat, and
it will be necessary to add enough fresh
acid to make up to the original gallon.
When this is done add 1 gallon of strong
oil of vitriol. The mixture should be
stirred with a wooden paddle while the
oil of vitriol is being added.
As the sulphuric acid is being added
the solution begins to grow milky, and
finally the whole has the consistency of
thick cream. This is caused by the sul-
phuric acid (oil of vitriol) precipitating
out the sulphate of zinc. Thus the very
finely^ divided precipitate of sulphate of
zinc is formed. If one desires to use
known quantities of acid and zinc the
following amounts may be taken: Oil of
vitriol, 1 gallon; aqua fortis (38° F.), 1
gallon; metallic zinc, 6 ounces.
In dissolving the zinc in the aqua for-
tis it is necessary to be sure that none re-
mains undissolved in the bottom.
The dead or matt dip is used hot, and.
therefore, is kept in a stone crock sur-
rounded with hot water. The articles to
be matted are polished and cleaned, and
the dip thoroughly stirred with a wooden
paddle, so as to bring up the sulphate of
zinc which has settled. Dip the work in
the solution and allow it to remain until
the matt is obtained. This is a point
which can be learned only by experience.
When the brass article is first introduced
there is a rapid action on the surface, but
in a few seconds this slows down. Re-
move the article and rinse and immedi-
ately dip into the usual bright dip. This
132
BRASS
is necessary for the reason that the dead
dip produces a dark coating upon the
surface, which, were it left on, would not
show the real effect or the color of the
metal. The bright dip, however, re-
moves this and exposes the true dead
surface.
The usual rule for making up the dead
dip is to use equal parts of oil of vitriol
and aqua fortis; but these may be altered
to suit the case. More oil of vitriol gives
a finer matt, while a larger quantity of
aqua fortis will give a coarser matt.
When the dip becomes old it is unneces-
sary to add more zinc, as a little goes into
the solution each time anything is dipped.
After a while, however, the solution be-
comes loaded with copper salts, and
should be thrown away.
A new dip does not work well, and
will not give good results when used at
once. It is usual to allow it to remain
over night, when it will be found to be in
a better working condition in the morn-
ing. A new dip will frequently refuse to
work, and the addition of a little water
will often start it. The water must be
used sparingly, however, and only when
necessary. Water, as a usual thing,
spoils a dead dip, and must be avoided.
After a while it may be necessary to add
a little more aqua fortis, and this may be
introduced as desired. Much care is
needed in working the dead dip, and it
requires constant watching and experi-
ence. The chief difficulty in working
the dead dip is to match a given article.
The only way that it can be done is to
"cut and try," and add aqua fortis or oil
of vitriol as the case requires.
The dead or matt dip can be obtained
only upon brass or German silver; in
other words, only on alloys which con-
tain zinc. The best results are obtained
upon yellow brass high in zinc.
To Improve Deadened Brass Parts. —
Clock parts matted with oilstone and
oil, such as the hour wheels, minute
wheels, etc., obtain, by mere grinding, a
somewhat dull appearance, with a sensi-
tive surface which readily takes spots.
This may be improved by preparing the
following powder, rubbing a little of it
on a buff stick, and treating the deadened
parts, which have been cleansed with
benzine, by rubbing with slight pressure
on cork. This imparts to the articles a
handsome, permanent, metallic matt
luster. The smoothing powder consists
of 2 parts of jewelers' red and 8 parts of
lime carbonate, levigated in water, and
well dried. Jewelers' red alone may be
employed, but this requires some prac-
tice and care, especially in the treatment
of wheels, because rays are liable to
form from the teeth toward the center.
Pickle for Brass. — Stir 10 parts (by
weight) of shining soot or snuff, 10 parts
of cooking salt, and 10 parts of red tar-
tar with 250 parts of nitric acid, and
afterwards add 250 parts of sulphuric
acid; or else mix 7 parts of aqua fortis
(nitric acid) with 10 parts of English
sulphuric acid. For the mixing ratio of
the acid, the kind and alloy of the metal
should be the guidance, and it is best
found out by practical trials. The bet-
ter the alloy and the less the percentage
of zinc or lead, the handsomer will be
the color. Genuine bronze, for instance,
acquires a golden shade. In order to
give brass the appearance of handsome
gilding it is often coated with gold var-
nish by applying same thinly with a brush
or sponge and immediately heating the
metal over a coal fire.
Pickling Brass to Look Like Gold.—
To pickle brass so as to make it resem-
ble gold allow a mixture of 6 parts of
chemically pure nitric acid and 1 part of
English sulphuric acid to act for some
hours upon the surface of the brass; then
wash with a warm solution, 20 parts of
tartar in 50 parts of water, and rub off
neatly with dry sawdust. Then coat
the article with the proper varnish.
Pickle for Dipping Brass. — To im-
prove the appearance of brass, tombac,
and copper goods, they are usually
dipped. For this purpose they are first
immersed in diluted oil of vitriol (brown
sulphuric acid), proportion, 1 to 10; next
in a mixture of 10 parts of red tartar; 10
parts of cooking salt; 250 parts of Eng-
lish sulphuric acid, as well as 250 parts of
aqua fortis (only for a moment), rinsing
off well in water and drying in sawdust.
For obtaining a handsome matt gold
color ^j part of zinc vitriol (zinc sul-
phate) is still added to the pickle.
Restoration of Brass Articles.— The
brass articles are first freed from adher-
ing dirt by the use of hot soda lye; if
bronzed they are dipped in a highly dilute
solution of sulphuric acid and rinsed in
clean water. Next they are yellowed in
a mixture of nitric acid, 75 parts; sul-
phuric acid, 100 parts; shining lamp-
black, 2 parts; cooking salt, 1 part; then
rinsed and polished and, to prevent
oxidation, coated with a colorless spirit
varnish, a celluloid varnish being best
for this purpose.
Tempering Brass. — If hammered too
brittle brass can be tempered and made
BRICK
183
of a more even hardness throughout by
warming it, as in tempering steel; but
the heat must not be nearly so great.
Brass, heated to the blue heat of steel, is
almost soft again. To soften brass, heat
it nearly to a dull red and allow it to cool,
or, if time is an object, it may be cooled
by plunging into water.
Drawing Temper from Brass. — Brass
is rendered hard by hammering or roll-
ing, therefore when a brass object re-
quires to be tempered the material must
be prepared before the article is shaped.
Temper may be drawn from brass by
heating it to a cherry red and then sim-
ply plunging it into water, the same as
though steel were to be tempered.
BRASS, FASTENING PORCELAIN TO :
See Adhesives.
BRASS PpLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRASS SOLDERS:
See Solders.
BRASS BRONZING:
See Plating.
BRASS CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BRASS PLATINIZING:
See Plating.
BRASS, SAND HOLES IN:
See Castings.
BRASSING :
See Plating.
BREAD, DOG:
See Dog Biscuit.
BREATH PERFUMES:
See also Dentifrices.
Remedies for Fetid Breath.— Fetid
breath may be due to the expelled air
(i. e., to disease of the respirational tract),
to gases thrown off from the digestive
tract, or to a diseased mouth. In the
first two cases medication must be di-
rected to the causative diseases, with the
last, antisepsis principally arid the neu-
tralization of the saliva, also the removal
of all residual food of dental caries.
I. — Potassium perman-
ganate 1 part
Distilled water.. . . 10 parts
Mix and dissolve. Add from 5 to 8
drops of this solution to a glass of water
and with it gargle the mouth.
II. — Infusion of sal via 250 parts
Glycerine 30 parts
Tincture of myrrh 12 parts
Tincture of laven-
der 12 parts
Labarraque's so-
lution 30 parts
Mix. Rinse the mouth frequently
with this mixture.
III. — Decoction of cham-
omile 30 parts
Glycerine 80 parts
Chlorinated water. 15 parts
Mix. Use as a gargle and mouth
wash.
IV. — Peppermint water 500 parts
Cherry-laurel wa-
ter 60 parts
Borax 25 parts
Mix and dissolve. Use as gargle and
mouth wash.
V.— Thymol 3 parts
Spirit of cochlea-
ria 300 parts
Tincture of rhat-
any 100 parts
Oil of peppermint 15 parts
Oil of cloves 10 parts
Mix. Gargle and wash mouth well
with 10 drops in a glass of water.
VI.— Salol 5 parts
1 Alcohol 1,000 parts
Tincture of white
canella 30 parts
Oil of pepper-
mint 1 part
Mix. Use as a dentifrice.
VII. — Hydrogen perox-
ide 25 parts
Distilled water. . . 100 parts
Mix. Gargle the mouth twice daily
with 2 tablespoonfuls of the mixture in a
glass of water.
VIII. — Sodium bicarbon-
ate 2 parts
Distilled water. ... 70 parts
Spirit of cochlearia 30 parts
Mix a half-teaspoonful in a wine-
glassful of water. Wash mouth two or
three times daily.
BRICK STAIN.
To stain brick flat the color of brown-
stone, add black to Venetian red until
the desired shade is obtained. If color
ground in oil is used, thin with turpen-
tine, using a little japan as a drier. If
necessary to get the desired shade add
yellow ocher to the mixture of red and
black. If the work is part old and part
new, rub the wall down, using a brick
134
BRONZING
for a rubber, until the surface is uniform,
and keep it well wet while rubbing with
cement water, made by stirring Portland
cement into water until the water looks
the color of the cement. This opera-
tion fills the pores of the brick and makes
a smooth, uniform surface to paint on.
Tinge the wash with a little dry Vene-
tian red and lampblack. This will help
bring the brick to a uniform color, so that
an even color can be obtained with one
coat of stain.
BRICKS :
See Ceramics.
BRICKS OF SAND-LIME:
See Stone, Artificial.
BRICK POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRICK WALLS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and Household Formulas.
BRICK WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
BRICKMAKERS' NOTES:
See Ceramics.
BRIDGE PAINT:
See Paint.
BRILLIANTINE :
See Hair Preparations.
BRIMSTONE (BURNING):
See Pyrotechnics.
THEIR PRE3ER-
BRIONY ROOTS:
VATION :
See Roots.
BRITANNIA METAL:
See Alloys.
BRITANNIA METAL, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BRITANNIA, SILVERPLATING :
See Plating.
BROMINE, ANTISEPTIC:
See Antiseptics.
BROMOFORM.
Bromoform is insoluble in dilute al-
cohol, but may be dissolved by the aid of
glycerine. The following formula has
een devised:
Bromoform 1 part
Alcohol 2 parts
Compound tincture of
cardamon 2 parts
Glycerine U parts
Some other formulas are:
Syrup of Bromofcrm. — Bromoform,
5 parts; alcohol (95 per cent), 45 parts;
glycerine, 150 parts; syrup, 800 parts.
Mix in the order given and place the con-
tainer in warm water until the syrup be-
comes perfectly clear.
Emulsion of Bromoform. — Add 3 parts
of bromoform to 20 parts of expressed oil
of almond; emulsify this mixture in the
usual manner with 2 parts of powdered
tragacanth, 4 parts of powdered acacia,
and sufficient water, using for the com-
pleted emulsion a total of 120 parts of
water, and add, finally, 4 parts of cherry-
laurel water.
Bromoform Rum. — Bromoform, 1.2
parts; chloroform, 0.8 parts; rum, suffi-
cient to make 120 parts. Claimed to
be an effective remedy in the treatment of
whooping cough.
BRONZES:
See Alloys.
BRONZE CASTING:
See Casting.
BRONZE, IMITATION:
See Plaster.
BRONZE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRONZE, RENOVATION OF:
See Cleaning Compounds.
Bronze Powders, Liquid
Bronzes, Bronze Substitutes,
and Bronzing
BRONZE POWDERS.
Gold bronze is a mixture of equal
parts of oxide of tin and sulphur, which
are heated for some time in an earthen
retort. Silver bronze is a mixture of
equal parts of bismuth, tin, and mercury,
which are fused in a crucible, adding the
mercury only when the tin and the bis-
muth are in fusion. Next reduce to a
very fine powder. To apply these
bronzes, white of egg, gum arabic, or
varnish is used. It is preferable to ap-
ply them dry upon one of the above-
named mediums serving as size, than to
mix them with the liquids themselves, for
in the latter case their luster is impaired.
Simple Coloring of Bronze Powder. —
In order to impart different colors to
BRONZING
135
bronze powders, such as pale yellow,
dark yellow to copper red. the powder is
heated with constant stirring in flat iron
pans until through the oxidation of the
copper — the bronzes consist of the brass
powder of an alloy from which the so-
called Dutch gold is produced — the de-
sired shade of color is reached. As a
rule a very small quantity of fat, wax, or
even paraffine is added in this operation.
The bronze powders are employed to
produce coatings or certain finishes on
metals themselves or to give articles of
wood, stone, pasteboard, etc., a metallic
appearance.
General Directions for Bronzing. — The
choice of bronze powders is determined
by the degree of brilliancy to be ob-
tained. The powder is mixed with
strong gum water or isinglass, and laid
on with a brush or pencil, almost but not
absolutely dry. A piece of soft leather,
wrapped around the finger, is dipped into
the powder and rubbed over the work;
when all this has been covered with the
bronze it must be left to dry, and the
loose powder is then cleared away with
a hair pencil.
LIQUID BRONZES.
Liquid Bronzes. — I. — For the produc-
tion of liquid bronze, acid-free varnish
should be used, as bronze ground with
ordinary varnish will form verdigris.
For the deacidification of dammar rosin
pour 1,000 parts of petroleum benzine
over 350 parts of finely ground dammar
rosin, and dissolve by repeated shaking.
Next add to the solution 250 parts of a
10-per-cent aqueous solution of caustic
soda and shake up well for 10 minutes.
After standing for a short time two
strata will have formed, the upper one
consisting of benzine-rosin solution and
the lower, aqueous one containing the
resinic acid dissolved as soda salts. Pour
off the benzine layers and agitate again
assiduously with 250 parts of the 10-per-
cent caustic-soda solution. Now set
aside for a complete classification and
separation of the two liquids. The
dammar solution siphoned off will be per-
fectly free from acid. To obtain gold-
bronze varnish add to the deacidified
dammar solution about 250 parts of
bronze or brocade per liter.
II. — Or else carefully mix 100 parts of
finely ground dammar rosin with 30 parts
of calcined soda and heat to fusion, in
which state it is maintained 2 or 3 hours
with frequent stirring. Let cool, grind
the turbid mass obtained, and pour a little
coal benzine or petroleum benzine over
it in a flask. By repeated shaking of the
flask the soluble portion of the molten
mass is dissolved; filter after allowing to
settle; into the filtrate put 300 to 400
parts of bronze powder of any desired
shade, the brocades being especially well
adapted for this purpose. If the metallic
powder remains distributed over the
mass for a long time it is of the right
consistency; if it deposits quickly it is
too thin and a part of the solvent must
be evaporated before stirring in the
bronze powder.
III. — A liquid bronze, which, while
it contains no metallic constituent, yet
possesses a metallic luster and a bronze
appearance, and answers excellently for
many purposes, is made as follows:
Dissolve by the aid of gentle heat 10
parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline
purple in 100 parts of alcohol. When
solution is complete, add 5 parts of ben-
zoic acid, raise the heat, and let boil
from 5 to 10 minutes, or until the green-
ish color of the mixture passes over to a
clear bronze brown. For "marbling"
or bronzing paper articles, this answers
particularly well.
Incombustible Bronze Tincture. —
Finely pulverize 5 parts, by weight, of
prime Dammar rosin and 1.5 parts of
ammonia soda. Heat gently, and stir fre-
quently, until no more carbonic acid bub-
bles up. Cool and pulverize again. Put
the powder into a glass carboy, and pour
over it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride;
let 'this stand for 2 days, stirring fre-
quently. Then filter. Ten parts of the
fluid are mixed with 5 parts of metallic
bronze of any desired shade, and put
into bottles. Shake well before using.
General Formulas for Bronzing Prepa-
rations.— I. — Take 240 parts subacetate
of copper, 120 parts oxide of zinc in pow-
der form, 60 parts borax, 60 parts salt-
peter, and 3.5 parts corrosive sublimate.
Prepare a paste from it with oil, stir to-
gether, and continue working with boiled
linseed oil and turpentine.
II. — Dissolve 120 parts sulphate of
copper and add 120 parts chipping of
tin; stir well and gather the precipitating
copper. After complete drying, grind
very finely in boiled linseed oil and tur-
pentine.
III. — Melt in a crucible 60 parts sul-
phur and 60 parts stannic acid; stir with
a clay tube until the mixture takes on the
appearance of Dutch gold and pour out.
When cold mix the color with boiled lin-
seed oil and turpentine, adding a small
quantity of drier. These three bronzes
must be covered with a pale, resistant
136
BRONZING
lacquer, otherwise they will soon tarnish
in rooms where gas is burned,
Florentine Bronzes. —I.— To produce a
Florentine bronzing, apply to the articles,
which must have previously been dipped,
a varnish composed of cherry gum lac
dissolved in alcohol. This varnish is
put on with a brush, and after that the
bronzed piece is passed through the
stove.
II. — If the article is of brass it must
be given a coat of copper by means of
the battery. Next dip a brush in olive
oil and brush the piece uniformly; let
dry for 5 or 6 hours and place in saw-
dust. Then heat the article on a mod-
erate charcoal dust fire.
Preparation of French Bronze. —
French bronze may be prepared by re-
ducing to a powder hematite, 5 parts,
and plumbago, 8 parts, and mixing into a
paste with spirit of wine. Apply the
composition with a soft brush to the
article to be bronzed and set it aside for
some hours. By polishing with a toler-
ably hard brush the article will assume
the beautiful appearance of real bronze.
The desired tint may be regulated by the
proportions of the ingredients.
How to Bronze Metals. — Prepare a
solution of 1* ounces of sodium hyposul-
phite in 1 pint of water and add to the
same a solution of 1A ounces of lead
acetate dissolved in 1 pint of water.
If, instead of lead acetate, an equal
weight of sulphuric acid (1* ounces) is
added to the sodium hyposulphite and
the process carried on as before, the
brass becomes coated with a very beau-
tiful red, which changes to green, and
finally a splendid brown with a green
and red iridescence. This last is a very
durable coating and may be especially
recommended. It is very difficult to
obtain exact shades by this process with-
out some experience. The thorough
cleansing of all articles from grease by
boiling in potash is absolutely necessary
to success. By substituting other metal
salts for the lead acetate many changes
in tints and quality of the coatings can
also be effected.
When this mixture is heated to a tem-
perature a little below the boiling point
it precipitates sulphide of lead in a state
of fine division. If some metal is pres-
ent some of the lead is precipitated on
the surface and, according to the thick-
ness of the layer, different colors are pro-
duced. To produce an even color the
articles must be evenly heated. By im-
mersion of brass articles for 5 minutes
the same may be coated with colors
varying from gold to copper red, then to
carmine, dark red, and from light blue
to blue white, and at last a reddish white,
depending on the time the metal remains
in the solution and the temperature used.
Iron objects treated in this solution take
a steel-blue color, zinc a brown color. In
the case of copper objects a golden yellow
cannot be obtained.
New Bronzing Liquid. — Dissolve 10
parts of fuchsine and 5 parts of aniline
purple in 100 parts of alcohol (95 percent)
and add to the solution 5 parts of ben-
zoic acid. Boil the whole for 10 min-
utes until the color turns bronze brown.
This liquid can be applied to all metals
and dries quickly.
A Bronze for Brass. — Immerse the
articles, freed from dirt and ^grease, in a
cold solution of 10 parts 01 potassium
permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate,
5 parts of hydrochloric acid in 1,000
parts of water. Let remain 30 seconds,
then withdraw, rinse, and let dry in fine,
soft sawdust. If the articles have be-
come too dark, or if a reddish-brown
color be desired, immerse for about 1
minute in a warm (140° F.) solution of
chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric
acid, 10 parts; potassium permanganate,
10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water,
1,000 parts. Treat as before. If the
latter solution alone be used the product
will be a brighter dark-yellow or red-
dish-brown color. By heating in a dry-
ing oven the tone of the colors is im-
proved. *
To Bronze Copper. — This process is
analogous to the one practiced at the
Mint of Paris for bronzing medals.
Spread on the copper object a solution
composed of:
Acetate or chlorhy-
drate of ammonia. . 30 parts
Sea salt 10 parts
Cream of tartar 10 parts
Acetate of copper .... 10 parts
Diluted acetic acid. . . 100 parts
Let dry for 24 to 48 hours at an ordi-
nary temperature. The surface of the
metal will become covered with a series
of varying tints. Brush with a waxed
brush. The green portions soaked with
chlorhydrate of ammonia will assume a
blue coloring, and those treated with
carbonate will be thick and darkened.
Bronzing and Patinizing of Small Zinc
Articles. — Coatings of bronze tones and
patina shades may be produced on zinc
oy means of various liquids, but the
BRONZING
137
articles, before being worked upon,
should be rubbed down with very fine
glass or emery paper, to make them not
only perfectly metallic, but also some-
what rough, as a consequence of which
the bronze or patina coatings will adhere
much better. The best bronze or pa-
tina effects on bronze are obtained by
electroplating the article with a fairly
thick deposit of brass rich in copper and
then treating it like genuine bronze. The
solutions used, however, must always be
highly diluted, otherwise they may eat
entirely through the thin metallic coat-
ing.
Bronzing of Zinc. — Mix thoroughly 30
parts of sal ammoniac, 10 parts of
oxalate of potash, and 1,000 parts of
vinegar. Apply with a brush or a rag
several times, until the desired tint is
produced.
Bronze Gilding on Smooth Moldings. —
A perfect substitute for dead gilding can-
not be obtained by bronzing, because of
the radically different reflection of the
light, for the matt gilding presents to the
light a perfectly smooth surface, while
in bronzing every little scale of bronze
reflects the light in a different direction.
In consequence of this diffusion of light,
all bronzing, even the best executed, is
somewhat darker and dimmer than leaf
gilding. This dimness, it is true, ex-
tends over the whole surface, and there-
fore is not perceptible to the layman, and
cannot be called an evil, as the genuine
leaf gold is so spotted that a bronzed
surface is cleaner than a gilt one. The
following process is the best known at
present: Choose only the best bronze,
which is first prepared thick with pure
spirit. Next add a quantity of water
and stir again. After the precipitation,
which occurs promptly, the water is
poured off and renewed repeatedly by
fresh water. When the spirit has been
washed out again in this manner, the re-
maining deposit, i. e., the bronze, is
thinned with clean, good gold size. The
bronze must be thin enough just to
cover. The moldings are coated twice,
the second time commencing at the op-
posite end. Under no circumstances
should the dry, dead gilding give off
color when grasping it firmly. If it does
that, either the size is inferior or the so-
lution too weak or the mixture too thick.
Incombustible Bronze Tincture. — Five
parts of prime dammar rosin and 1.5
parts of ammonia soda, very finely pul-
verized. Heat gently, with frequent
stirring, until the evolution of carbonic
acid ceases. Then take from the fire,
and when cool pulverize again. Put
the powder into a glass carboy, and pour
over it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride;
let this stand for 2 days, stirring fre-
quently, then filter. Ten parts of the
nuid are to be mixed with each 5 parts
of metallic bronze of any desired shade,
and put into bottles. Shake the tincture
well before using.
Bronzing Engraved Ornaments. —
Take bronze and stir. with it pale copal
varnish diluted one-half with turpentine.
With this paint the ornaments neatly.
In £ hour the bronze will have dried.
The places from which the bronze is to
be removed, i. e., where the bronze has
overrun the polished surface, are dabbed
with a small rag soaked with kerosene,
taking care that it is not too wet, so as
to prevent the kerosene from running
into the ornament. After a short while
the bronze will have dissolved and can
be wiped off with a soft rag. If this
does not remove it entirely, dab and wipe
again. Finally finish wiping with an
especially soft, clean rag. Kerosene
does not attack polish on wood. The
bronze must become dull and yet adhere
firmly, under which condition it has a
hardened color. If it does not become
dull the varnish is too strong and should
be diluted with turpentine.
Durable Bronze on Banners. — To
render bronzes durable on banners, etc.,
the ground must be primed with gum
arable and a little glycerine. Then ap-
ply the bronze solution, prepared with
dammar and one-tenth varnish. In-
stead of gum arabic with glycerine, gela-
tine glue may also be employed as an
underlay.
BRONZE SUBSTITUTES.
The following recipe is used in making
imitation gold bronzes:
Sandarac 50 parts
Mastic 10 parts
Venice turpentine. . . 5 parts
Alcohol 135 parts
In the above dissolve:
Metanil yellow and
gold orange 0.4 parts
and add
Aluminum, finely
powdered 20 parts
and shake.
If a deeper shade is desired it is well
to use ethyl orange and gold orange in
the same proportion, instead of the dyes.
For the production of imitation copper
bronze take the above-mentioned rosin
mixture and dissolve therein only gold
138
BRONZING
orange 0.8 parts, and add aluminum 20
parts, whereby a handsome copper color
is produced. Metanil yellow 0.4 parts
without gold orange gives with the same
amount of lacquer a greenish tone of
bronze. The pigments must not be
made use of in larger quantities, because
the luster of the bronze is materially
affected. Only pigments of certain
properties, such as solubility in alcohol,
relative constancy . to reductive agents,
are suitable; unsuitable are, for instance,
naphthol yellow, phenylene-diamin, etc.
Likewise only a lacquer of certain com-
position is fit for use, other lacquers of
commerce, such as zapon (celluloid)
lacquer being unsuitable. The bronzes
prepared in this manner excel in luster
and color effect; the cost is very low.
They are suitable for bronzing low-
priced articles, as tinware, toys, etc.
Under the action of sun and moisture the
articles lose some of their luster, but ob-
jects kept indoors such as figures of plas-
ter of Paris, inkstands, wooden boxes,
etc., retain their brilliancy for years.
Some use powdered aluminum and yel-
low organic dyestuffs, such as gold orange.
These are employed together with a var-
nish of certain composition, which im-
parts the necessary gloss to the mixture.
BRONZE COLORING:
To Color Bronze. — Bronze articles ac-
quire handsome tempering colors by
heating. In order to impart an old ap-
pearance to new objects of bronze, they
may be heated over a flame and rubbed
with a woolen rag dipped in finely pow-
dered graphite, until the desired shade
is attained. Or else a paste is applied
on the article, consisting of graphite 5
parts and bloodstone 15 parts, with a suf-
ficient quantity of alcohol. After 24
hours brush off the dry powder. A hot
solution composed of sal ammoniac 4
parts, sorrel salt 1 part, vinegar 200
parts, may also be brushed on. Another
way is to dip the pieces into a boiling so-
lution of cupric acetate 20 parts, and sal
ammoniac 10 parts, dissolved in 60 to
100 parts of vinegar.
Patent bronzes (products colored by
means of aniline dyes) have hitherto
been used in the manufacture of toys and
de luxe or fancy paper, but makers of
wall or stained paper have recently given
their attention to these products. Wall
—or moire — paper prepared with these
dyes furnishes covers or prints of silken
gloss with a peculiar double-color effect
in which the metallic brilliancy charac-
teristic of bronze combines with the
shades of the tar pigments used. Very
beautiful reliefs, giving rise to the most
charming play of colors in perpendicular
or laterally reflected light, are produced
by pressing the paper lengths or web
painted with aniline-bronze dyes. The
brass brocade and tin bronzes serve as
bases for the aniline dyes; of the tar pig-
ments only basic aniline dyes soluble in
alcohol are used. In coloring the pul-
verized bronze care must be taken that
the latter is as free as possible from or-
ganic fats. Tar dyes should be dis-
solved in as concentrated a form as pos-
sible in alcohol and stirred with the
bronze, the pigment being then fixed on
the vehicle with an alcoholic solution of
tannin. The patent bronze is then
dried by allowing the alcohol to evapo-
rate. This method of coloring is purely
mechanical, as the tar dyes do not com-
bine with the metallic bronze, as is the
case with pigments in which hydrate of
alumina is used. A coating of aniline
bronze of this kind is therefore very sen-
sitive to moisture, unless spread over
the paper surface with a suitable protect-
ive binding medium, or protected by a
transparent coat of varnish, which of
course must not interfere with the special
color effect.
Pickle for Bronzes. — Sulphuric acid,
1,000 parts; nitric acid, 500 parts; soot,
10 parts; sea salt, 5 parts.
Imitation Japanese Bronze. — When
the copper or coppered article is per-
fectly dry and the copper or copper
coating made brilliant, which is produced
by rubbing with a soft brush, put graph-
ite over the piece to be bronzed so
that the copper is simply dyed. Wipe
off the raised portions with a damp cloth,
so that the copper makes its appearance.
Next put on a thin coat of Japanese var-
nish; wipe the relief again and let dry.
Apply 1 or 2 coats after the first is per-
fectly dry. Handsome smoked hues
may be obtained by holding the bronze
either over the dust of lighted peat or
powdered rosin thrown on lighted coal,
so as to obtain a smoke which will change
the color of the varnish employed. The
varnish must be liquid enough to be
worked easily, for this style of bronzing
is only applicable to brass.
Green Bronze on Iron. — Abietate of
silver, 1 part; essence of lavender, 19
parts. Dissolve the abietate of silver in
the essence of lavender. After the arti-
cles have been well pickled apply the
abietate-of-silver solution with a brush;
next place the objects in a stove and let
the temperature attain about 150° C.
Blue Bronze. — Blue bronze is pro-
BRONZING
139
duced by the wet process by coloring
white bronze (silver composition) with
aniline blue. A blue-bronze color can be
produced in the ordinary way from white-
bronze color, the product of pure Eng-
lish tin, and with an alum solution con-
sisting of 20 parts of alum in 4,500 parts
of water boiled for 5 hours and washed
clean and dried. The bronze prepared
in this manner is placed in a porcelain
dish, mixed with a solution of 15 parts of
aniline blue in 1,500 parts of alcohol,
stirring the bronze powder and liquid
until the alcohol has evaporated entire-
ly and the bronze color becomes dry.
This manipulation must be repeated 6
or 8 times, until the desired blue shade
is reached. When the bronze is dark
enough it is washed out in warm water,
and before entirely dry 1 tablespoonful
of petroleum is poured on 2 pounds of
bronze, which is intimately mixed and
spread out into a thin layer, exposed to
the air, whereby the smell is caused to
disappear in a few days.
Bronzing with Soluble Glass.— To
bronze wood, porcelain, glass, and metal
by means of a water-glass solution, coat
the article with potash water-glass of
30° Be. and sprinkle on the respective
bronze powder.
Brown Oxidation on Bronze. — Genu-
ine bronze can be beautifully oxidized by
painting it with a solution of 4 parts of
sal ammoniac and 1 part of oxalium
(oxalate of potash) in 200 parts of vine-
gar, allowing it to dry, and repeating the
operation several times. These articles,
protected against rain, soon lose the un-
pleasant glaring metallic luster and as-
sume instead a soft brown tint, which
bronze articles otherwise acquire only
after several years' exposure to the at-
mosphere. A beautiful bronze color
which will remain unaffected by heat
can be imparted to bronze articles by the
following process: The object is first
washed in a solution of 1 part of crystal-
lized verdigris and 2 parts of sal ammo-
niac in 260 parts of water, and then dried
before an open fire till the green color
begins to disappear. The operation is
repeated 10 to 20 times, but with a solu-
tion of 1 part of verdigris crystals and 2
parts of sal ammoniac in 600 parts of
water. The color of the article, olive
green at first, gradually turns to brown,
which will remain unaltered even when
exposed to strong heat.
BRONZE POWDERS:
See also Plating for general methods
of bronzing, and Varnishes.
Gold and Silver Bronze Powders. —
Genuine gold bronze is produced from
the waste and parings obtained in gold
beating. The parings, etc., are ground
with honey or a gum solution, upon a
glass plate or under ha.rd granite stones,
into a very fine powder, which is re-
peatedly washed out with water and
dried. There are various shades of gold
bronze, viz., red, reddish, deep yellow,
pale yellow, as well as greenish. These
tints are caused by the various percent-
ages of gold or the various mixtures of
the gold with silver and copper.
By the use of various salt solutions or
acidulated substances other shades can
be imparted to bronze. In water con-
taining sulphuric acid, nitric acid, or
hydrochloric acid, it turns a bright yel-
low; by treatment with a solution of crys-
tallized verdigris or blue vitriol in water
it assumes more of a reddish hue; other
tints are obtained with the aid of cooking
salt, tartar, green vitriol, or saltpeter in
water.
Gold bronze is also obtained by dis-
solving gold in aqua regia and mixing
with a solution of green vitriol in water,
whereupon the gold falls down as a me-
tallic powder which may be treated in
different ways. The green vitriol, how-
ever, must be dissolved in boiling water
and mixed in a glass, drop by drop, with
sulphuric acid and stirred until the basic
iron sulphate separating in flakes has re-
dissolved. Another way of producing
gold bronze is by dissolving gold in aqua
regia and evaporating the solution in a
porcelain dish. When it is almost dry
add a little pure hydrochloric acid and
repeat this to drive out all the free chlo-
rine and to produce a pure hydrochlorate
of gold. The gold salt is dissolved in
distilled water, taking \ liter per ducat
(3J grams fine gold); into this solution
drop, while stirring by means of a glass
rod, an 8° solution (by Beaume) of an-
timony chloride, as long as a precipitate
forms. This deposit is gold bronze,
which, dried after removal of all liquids,
is chiefly employed in painting, for bronz-
ing, and for china and glass decoration.
Metallic gold powder is, furthermore,
obtained by dissolving pure and alloyed
gold in aqua regia and precipitating it
again by an electro-positive metal, such
as iron or zinc, which is placed in the liq-
uid in the form of rods. The gold is
completely separated thereby. The rods
must be perfectly clean and polished
bright. The color of the gold bronze
depends upon the proportions of the gold.
In order to further increase the brilliancy
the dried substance may still be ground.
140
BRUSHES
Mosaic Gold. — Mosaic gold, generally
a compound of tin, 64.63 parts, and sul-
phur, 35.37 parts, is odorless and taste-
less, and dissolves only in chlorine solu-
tion, aqua regia, and boiling potash lye.
It is employed principally for bronz-
ing plaster-of-Paris figures, copper, and
brass, by mixing it with 6 parts of bone
ashes, rubbing it on wet, or applying it
with varnish or white of egg in the prep-
aration of gold paper or for gilding
cardboard and wood. Mosaic gold of
golden-yellow color is produced by heat-
ing 6 parts of sulphur and 16 parts of
tin amalgam with equal parts of mer-
cury and 4 parts of sulphur; 8 parts of
precipitate from stannic muriate (stannic
acid) and 4 parts of sulphur also give a
handsome mosaic gold.
The handsomest, purest, and most
gold-like mosaic gold is obtained by
melting 12 parts of pure tin, free from
lead, and mixing with 6 parts of mercury
to an amalgam. This is mixed with 7
parts of flowers of sulphur and 6 parts of
sal ammoniac, whereupon the mass is
subjected for several hours to a heat
which at first does not attain redness,
but eventually when no more fumes are
generated is increased to dark -red heat.
This operation is conducted either in a
glass retort or in an earthenware cru-
cible. The sal ammoniac escapes first
on heating, next vermilion sublimates
and some stannic chloride, while the
mosaic gold remains on the bottom, the
upper layer, consisting of lustrous,
golden, delicately translucent leaflets,
being the handsomest mosaic gold.
Genuine Silver Bronze. — This is ob-
tained by the finely ground waste from
beating leaf silver or by dissolving silver
in aqua fortis. This solution is then
diluted with water and brightly scoured
copper plates are put in, whereby the
silver precipitates as a metallic powder.
Imitation Silver Bronze. — This is ob-
tained through the waste in beating imi-
tation leaf silver, which, finely ground,
is then washed and dried. In order to
increase the luster it is ground again in a
dry condition.
Mosaic Silver. — Mosaic silver is an
amalgam of equal parts of mercury, bis-
muth, and tin. One may also melt 50
parts of good tin in a crucible, and as
soon as it becomes liquid add 50 parts
of bismuth, stirring all with an iron wire
until the bismuth is fused as well. As
soon as this occurs the crucible must be
removed from the fire; then stir in, as
long as the contents are still liquid, 25
parts of mercury and mix the whole mass
evenly until it can be ground on a stone
slab.
BRONZE VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS :
See Paints.
BRONZING OF WOOD :
See Wood.
BROOCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS ON:
See Photography.
BROWN OINTMENT :
See Ointments.
BROWNING OF STEEL:
See Plating.
BROWNSTONE, IMITATION:
See Brick Stain.
BRUNETTE POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
Brushes
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PAINT
AND VARNISH BRUSHES.
It is a good plan to fill the varnish brush
before putting it in the keeper.
Whitewash or kalsomine brushes
should not be put into newly slaked
lime or hot kalsomine.
Cement-set brushes should never be
put in any alcohol mixture, such as shel-
lacs and spirit stains.
Varnish brushes should be selected
with a view to their possessing the follow-
ing qualities: 1st, excellence of mate-
rial; 2d, excellence of make, which
includes fullness of hair or bristles and
permanency of binding; 3d, life and
spring, or elasticity sufficient to enable
the varnisher to spread the varnish with-
out reducing it with turpentine; and
4th, springing, when in use, to a true
chisel edge.
Temperature for Brushes. — The bris-
tles of every brush are held in place by
the handle. It passes through the shank
of the brush and is kiln-dried to fit
perfectly. If it shrinks, however, its
outward tension is lost and the bristles
loosened. For this reason the first
principle in brush care is to keep the
tool, when it is new or not soaking, in a
cool place, out of hot rooms, and any
temperature that would tend to shrink
the wood of the handle.
Cleaning Paint Brushes. — No new
brush should be dipped in the paint
and put to work without first being
BRUSHES— BUNIONS
141
cleaned. By working it with a brisk
movement back and forth through the
hand most of the dust and loose hairs
will be taken out. A paint brush, when
thus thoroughly dry cleaned, should be
placed in water for a few minutes, not
long enough to soak or swell it, but only
until wet through, and then swung and
shaken dry. It is then ready to dip in
the paint, and although some of the hairs
may still be loose, most of them will
come out in the first few minutes' work-
ing and can be easily picked from the
surface.
Cleaning Varnish Brushes. — Varnish
brushes, and brushes used in varnish
stain, buggy paint, and all color in var-
nish require different handling than
paint brushes. They should be more
thoroughly dry cleaned, in order that
all loose hairs may be worked out.
After working them through the hand it
is a good thing to pass the brush back
and forth over a sheet of sandpaper.
This rough surface will pull out the loose
bristles and smooth down the rough
ends of the chisel point. The brush
should then be washed by working it for
a few minutes in clean turpentine and
swinging it dry. It should never be put
in water. For carriage work and fine
varnishing the brush should be broken
in on the rubbing coat in order to work
out all the dust particles before it is used
on the finishing coats.
Setting the Paint -Brush Bristles.—
For the first 2 or 3 days new brushes
require special care while at rest. They
should be dipped in raw oil or the
paint itself and smoothed out carefully,
then laid on their sides over night. The
chisel-pointed brushes should be set at
an incline, the handle supported just
enough to allow the brush to lie along
the point. This is done to prevent twist-
ing of the bristles, and to keep the shape
of the brush. It is necessary to do
this only 2 or 3 times before the shape
becomes set.
Paint Brushes at Rest. — An impor-
tant principle in brush care is never to
leave the brush on end while at rest.
Even for temporary rest during a job
the brush should never stand on end.
At night it should always be placed in a
"brush-keeper" — a water-tight box, or a
paint keg, with nails driven through the
sides on which the brushes can be sus-
pended in water. Holes are bored in
the handles so the brush will hang free
of the bottom, but with the bristles en-
tirely under water. Before placing
them in water the brushes should be
wiped so as not to be too full of paint,
but not cleaned.
Varnish Brushes at Rest. — Varnish
brushes should be kept at rest in tur-
pentine and varnish, or better, in some
of the varnish that the brush is used for.
They should preferably not be kept in
turpentine, as that makes the brush
** lousy" — roughening the bristles.
Washing Brushes. — All brushes should
be washed in benzine or turpentine and
shaken dry — not whipped — when it is
desired to change from one color to an-
other, or from one varnish to another.
To Restore Brushes. — A good remedy
to restore lettering brushes which have
lost their elasticity and do not keep a
point, is as follows:
Put the pencil in oil and brush it sev-
eral times over a hot iron in such a man-
ner that the hairs touch the iron from
each side; then dip the pencil quickly in
cold water.
A Removable Binding. — The bristle
bunch of brushes is bound with rope so
as to keep them together for use. In-
stead of the twine, a covering of rubber
may be employed, which is easily slipped
over the bristles and can be conveniently
removed again. The cleaning of the
brush is much facilitated thereby, and
the breadth of the stripe to be drawn
with the brush can be accurately regu-
lated, according to how far the covering
is slipped over the brush.
See also Cleaning Preparations a--d
Methods.
BUBBLES f GELATIN:
See Gelatin.
BUBBLE (SOAP) LIQUID:
See Soap Bubble Liquid.
BUBBLES.
Bubbles of air often adhere to molds
immersed in depositing solutions. They
may be prevented by previously dipping
the object into spirits of wine, or be re-
moved by the aid of a soft brush, or by
directing a powerful current of the liquid
against them by means of a vulcanized
india-rubber bladder, with a long and
curved glass tube attached to it; but the
liquid should be free from sediment.
BUG KILLERS:
See Insecticides.
BUNIONS :
See Corn Cures.
BURNS— BUTTER
BURNS :
See also Ointments and Turpentine.
Mixture for Burns. — I. — A mixture of
castor oil with the white of egg is recom-
mended for burns. The eggs are broken
into a bowl and the castor oil slowly
poured in while the eggs are beaten.
Enough oil is added to make a thick,
creamy paste, which is applied to the
burn. The applications are repeated
often enough to prevent their becoming
dry or sticky. Leave the surface un-
covered.
II. — Put 27 parts, by measure, of
menthol into 44 parts, by measure, of
witch ha/el (distillate) and apply freely.
A good plan is to bandage the parts and
wet the wrappings with this mixture.
III. — A very efficacious remedy for
burns is a solution of cooking salt in
water. It is best to immerse fingers,
hands, and arms in the solution, which
must be tolerably strong. For burns in
the face and other parts of the body,
salt water poultices are applied.
Butter
(See also Foods.)
Butter Color. — Orlean, 80 parts, by
weight; curcuma root (turmeric), 80
parts, by weight; olive oil, 240 parts, by
weight; saffron, 1 part, by weight; alco-
hol, 5 parts, by weight. The orlean and
turmeric are macerated with olive oil and
expressed. The weight of the filtered
liquid is made up again to 240 parts, by
weight, with olive oil, next the filtered
saffron-alcohol extract is added, and the
alcohol is expelled again by heating the
mixture.
Artificial Butter.— I.— Carefully
washed beef suet furnishes a basis for
the manufactures of an edible substitute
for natural butter. The thoroughly
washed and finely chopped suet is ren-
dered in a steam-heated tank; 1,000
parts of fat, 300 parts of water, 1 part of
potassium carbonate, and 2 stomachs of
pigs or sheep, are taken. The temper-
ature of the mixture is raised to 113° F.
After 2 hours, under the influence of the
pepsin in the stomachs, the membranes
are dissolved and the fat is melted and
rises to the top of the mixture. After
the addition of a little salt the melted fat
is drawn off, stood to cool so as to allow
the stearine and palmitin to separate,
and then pressed in bags in a hydraulic
press. Forty to 50 per cent of solid
stearine remains, while 50 to 60 per cent
of fluid oleopalmitin (so-called "oleo-
margarine'') is pressed out. The "oleo
oil" is then mixed with 10 per cent of its
weight of milk and a little butter color
and churned. The product is then
worked, salted, and constituted the
"oleomargarine," or butter substitute.
Leaf lard can be worked in the same way
as beef suet, and will yield an oleopal-
mitin suitable for churning up into a
butter substitute.
II. — Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle
after thorough washing is placed in clean
water and surrounded with ice, where it
is allowed to remain until all animal heat
has been removed. It is then cut into
small pieces by machinery and cooked at
a temperature of about 150° F. (65.6° C.)
until the fat in liquid form has separated
from the tissue, then settled until it is
perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into
the graining vats and allowed to stand
for a day, when it is ready for the presses.
The pressing extracts the stearine, leav-
ing a product commercially known as
oleo oil which, when churned with cream
or milk, or both, and with usually a pro-
Eortion of creamery butter, the whole
eing properly salted, gives the new food
product, oleomargarine.
III. — In making butterine use neutral
lard, which is made from selected leaf
lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil,
excepting that no stearine is extracted.
This neutral lard is cured in salt brine
for from 48 to 70 hours at an ice-water
temperature. It is then taken and, with
the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine
butter, is churned with cream and milk,
producing an article which when proper-
ly salted and packed is ready for the
market. In both cases coloring matter
is used, which is the same as that used by
dairymen to color their butter. At cer-
tain seasons of the year — viz., in cold
weather, a small quantity of sesame oil
or salad oil made from cottonseed oil is
used to soften the texture of the product.
IV. — "Ankara" is a substance which
in general appearance resembles a good
article of butter, being rather firmer at
ordinary temperatures than that sub-
stance, approaching the consistency of
cocoa butter. It is quite odorless, but in
taste it resembles that of a fair article of
butter and, what is more, its behavior
under heat is very similar to that of but-
ter— it browns and forms a sort of spume
like that of fat. Ankara consists of a
base of cocoa butter, carrying about 10
per cent of milk, colored with yolk of egg.
While not derived from milk, on the one
hand, nor does it come from a single
vegetable or animal fat on the other, an-
BUTTER— CAFlS PARFAIT
143
kara may be considered as belonging to
the category of the margarines. An-
kara is obtained in the market in the form
of cakes or tablets of 2 pounds in weight.
V. — Fresh butter, 150 parts, by weight;
animal fat, 80 parts, by weight; sun-
flower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut
oil, 30 parts, by weight.
yi.— Fresh butter, 100 parts, by
weight; animal fat, 100 parts, by weight;
sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa-
nut oil, 20 parts, by weight.
VII.— Fresh butter, 50 parts, by
weight; animal fat, 150 parts, by weight;
sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa-
nut oil, 20 parts, by weight.
It is seen that these three varieties
contain respectively 50, 33, and about 16
per cent of cow's butter. The appear-
ance of the mixture is nearly perfect.
Formulas V to VII are for a Russian arti-
ficial butter called " Perepusk."
To Impart the Aroma and Taste of
Natural Butter to Margarine. — In order
to give margarine the aroma and flavor of
cow butter, add to it a fatty acid product,
which is obtained by saponification of
butter, decomposition of the soap, and
distillation in the vacuum at about 140°
F. The addition of the product is made
upon emulsification of the fats with milk.
The margarine will keep for months.
Harmless Butter Color. — Alum, pul-
verized finely, 30 parts; extract of tur-
meric, 1 part. With the extract damp-
en the powder as evenly as possible, then
spread out and dry over some hot sur-
face. When dry, again pulverize thor-
oughly. Protect the product from the
light. As much of the powder as will
lie on the point of a penknife is added
to a churnful of milk, or cream, before
churning, and it gives a beautiful golden
color, entirely harmless. To make the
extract of turmeric add 1 part of pow-
dered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and
let macerate together for fully a week.
To Sweeten Rancid Butter.— I.— Wash
the butter first with fresh milk and after-
wards with spring water, carefully work-
ing out the residual water.
II. — Add 25 to 30 drops of lime chlor-
ide to every 2 pounds of butter, work the
mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty
of fresh, cold water, and work out the
residual water.
III. — Melt the butter in a water bath,
along with some freshly burned animal
charcoal, coarsely powdered and care-
fully sifted to free it from dust. After
this has remained in contact for a few
minutes, the butter is strained through
a clean flannel. If the rancid odor is
not completely removed, complete the
process.
An English Margarine. — A mixture of
edible fats of suitable consistency, e. g.,
oleo oil, 5 parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and
butter, 1 part; is mixed with albuminous
"batter," 4 parts, with the addition of 1
part of salt as a preservative. If the
albuminous constituent be composed of
the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a
foam the product will have the consist-
ency and color of butter. The molten
fats are added to the egg batter and the
whole is stirred at a temperature suffi-
cient to produce coagulation of the albu-
men (150-200° F.). The mass is then
cooled gradually with continuous stir-
ring, and the salt is worked in.
Olive-Oil Paste. — If an ounce of peeled
garlic be rubbed up into a pulp, in a
clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be
added from 3 to 4 ounces of good olive
oil, with constant rubbing up with the
pestle, the oil becomes converted into a
pasty mass, like butter. It is possible
that the mucilage obtainable from other
bulbs of the Lilium tribe would prove
equally efficient in conferring semi-
solidity on the oil, without imparting any
strong smell. The above composition is
largely used by the Spanish peasantry,
instead of butter, which runs liquid in
the Spanish summer. It is known as
"aleoli." The more easily solidified
portion of olive oil is stearine, and this
may be cheaply prepared from mutton
fat. If added, in certain proportions, to
olive oil, it would certainly raise its melt-
ing point.
BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL.
Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vinegar,
1 part; syrup of buckthorn, 1 part. Dis-
solve the powder in the water and add
the vinegar and syrup. The powder is
prepared as follows: Sodium chloride,
50 parts; milk sugar, 100 parts; potas-
sium nitrate, 5 parts; alum, 5 parts.
Mix.
BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
BUTTER COLORANT:
See Foods.
BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE:
See Agate.
CADMIUM ALLOYS :
See Alloys.
CALAMUS dORDlAL-CAMPMOft
CALCIUM CARBIDE:
Preservation and Use of Calcium
Carbide. — Calcium carbide is readily at-
tacked by the air and the moisture con-
tained in the generators and consequent-
ly decomposes during the storing, with
formation of acetylene gas. Aside from
the loss, this decomposition is also at-
tended with dangers. One of the oldest
methods of preservation is the saturation
of the carbide with petroleum. In using
such carbide a layer of petroleum forms
on the surface of the water in the gener-
ator, which prevents the water from
evaporating, thus limiting the subse-
quent generation of acetylene from the
remaining carbide. Instead of petro-
leum many other substances have been
proposed which answer the purpose
equally well, e. g., toluol, oils, solid bodies,
which previously have to be liquefied,
such as stearine, paraffine, rosin, etc.
Of a different nature is a medium of-
fered by Letang of Paris. He em-
ploys sugar or saccharine bodies to which
he adds, if necessary, a little petroleum,
turpentine, vaseline, or varnish of any
kind, as well as chalk, limestone, talc,
sulphur, or sand. The carbide is coated
with this mixture. The saccharine sub-
stances dissolve in the generating water,
and also have a dissolving action on the
slaked lime, which is formed by the de-
composition of the carbide which admits
of its easy removal.
According to another process carbide
is put on the market in such a shape
that, without weighing, merely by count-
ing or measuring one is in a position to
use equivalent quantities for every charge.
Gearing casts molten carbide in the
shape of bars, and pours a layer of gela-
tin, glue, and water soluble varnish
over the carbide bars. Others make
shells containing a certain quantity of
reduced carbide. For this ordinary and
varnished pasteboard, wax paper, tin-
foil, thin sneet zinc, and similar sub-
stances may be used which ward off
atmospheric moisture, thus protecting
the carbide from premature decompo-
sition. Before use, the cartridge-like
shell is pierced or cut open, so that the
water can get at the contents. The
more or less reduced carbide is filled in
the shell, either without any admixture
or united into a compact mass by a bind-
ing agent, such as colophony, pitch, tar,
sand, etc.
Deodorization of Calcium Carbide. —
Calcium carbide is known to possess a
very unpleasant odor because It
stantly develops small quantities of im-
pure acetylene in contact with the mois-
ture of tne air. Le Roy, of Rouen,
proposes for portable — especially bicy-
cle— lamps, in which the evil is more
noticeable than in large plants, simply to
pour some petroleum over the carbide
and to pour off the remainder not ab-
sorbed. The petroleum, to which it is
well to add some nitro-benzol (mir-
bane essence), prevents the access of air
to the carbide, but permits a very satis-
factory generation of gas on admission of
water.
CALCIUM SULPHIDE (LUMINOUS):
See Paints.
CALFSKIN:
See Leather.
CAMERA RENOVATION:
See Photography.
CAMPHOR PREPARATIONS:
Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor. —
Naphthalene white,
in scales 3,000 parts
Camphor 1,000 parts
Melt on the steam bath and add to the
hot mass:
Coumarin 2 parts
Mirbane oil 10 parts
Cast in plates or compressed tablets.
The preparation is employed as a moth
preventive.
Powdered Camphor in. Permanent
Form. — I. — Powder the camphor in the
usual manner, with the addition of a
little alcohol. When it is nearly reduced
to the proper degree of fineness add a
few drops of fluid petrolatum and imme-
diately triturate again. In this manner
a powder as fine as flour is obtained,
which does not cake together. This
powdered camphor may be used for all
purposes except for solution in alcohol,
as it will impart to the latter a faint opal-
escence, owing to the insolubility of the
petrolatum.
II. — Take equal parts of strong ether
and alcohol to reduce the camphor to
powder. It is claimed for this method
that it only takes one-half of the time
required when alcohol alone is used, and
that the camphor dries more quickly.
Before sifting add 1 per cent of white
vaseline and 5 per cent of sugar of milk.
Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the air,
say 15 minutes, ^ then pass through a
moderately fine wire sieve, using a stubby
shaving brush to assist in working it
through.
CAMPHOR— CANDLES
145
Camphor Pomade —
Oil of bitter almonds. 1 drachm
Oil of cloves 20 drops
Camphor li ounces
White wax 4 ounces
Lard, orepared 1 pound
Melt the wax and lard together, then
add the camphor in saturated solution
in spirit; put in the oils when nearly
cold.
Camphor Ice. —
L— White wax 16 parts
Benzoated suet 48 parts
Camphor, powdered. 8 parts
Essential oil, to perfume.
Melt the wax and suet together.
When nearly cold, add the camphor and
perfume, mix well, and pour into molds.
II. — Oil of a Imond 16 parts
White wax 4 parts
Spermaceti 4 parts
Paraffine 8 parts
Camphor, powdered. 1 part
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
Dissolve the camphor in the oil by the
aid of a gentle heat. Melt the solids to-
gether, remove, and let cool, but before
the mixture begins to set add the cam-
phorated oil and the perfume, mix, and
pour into molds.
III. — Stearine (stearic acid) 8 pounds
Lard 10 pounds
White wax 5 pounds
Spermaceti 5 pounds
Melt on a water bath in an earthen or
porcelain dish; strain into a similar ves-
sel; add a solution of 2 ounces powdered
borax in 1 pound of glycerine, previously
warmed, to the melted substance when at
the point of cooling; stir well; add cam-
phor, 2 pounds, powdered by means of
alcohol, 3 ounces; stir well and pour into
molds.
CAMPHOR SUBSTITUTES IN THE
PREPARATION OF CELLULOID :
See Celluloid.
CAMPHOR AND RHUBARB AS A
REMEDY FOR CHOLERA:
See Cholera Remedies.
CAN VARNISH :
See Varnishes.
CANARY-BIRD PASTE.
The following is a formula much used
by German canary-bird raisers:
Sweet almonds,
blanched 16 parts
Pea meal , .. 32 parts
Butter, fresh (un-
salted) ... 3 parts
Honey, quantity sufficient to make
a stiff paste.
The ingredients are worked into a
stiff paste, which is pressed through a
colander or large sieve to granulate the
mass. Some add to every 5 pounds,
10 or 15 grains of saffron and the yolks
of 2 eggs.
CANARY BIRDS AND THEIR DIS-
EASES :
See Veterinary Formulas.
CANDLES :
Coloring Ceresine Candles for the
Christmas Tree. — For coloring these
candles only dye stuffs soluble in oil
can be employed. Blue: 23-24 lav-
ender blue, pale or dark, 100-120 parts
per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Violet: 26
fast viole.t R, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of
ceresine. Silver gray: 29 silver gray,
150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine.
Yellow and orange: 30 wax yellow, me-
dium, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of cere-
sine; 61 old gold, 200 parts per 5,000
parts of ceresine. Pink and red:
27 peach-pink, or 29 chamois, about 100
parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Green:
16-17 brilliant green, 33 May green, 41
May green, 200-250 parts per 5,000
parts of ceresine. The above-named
colors should be ground in oil and the
ceresine tinted with them afterwards.
Manufacture of Composite Paraffine
Candles. — Three parts of hydroxy-
stearic acid are dissolved in 1 part of a
suitable solvent (e. g., stearic acid), and
the solution is mixed with paraffine wax
to form a stock for the manufacture of
composite candles.
Transparent Candles. — The following
are two recipes given in a German
patent specification. The figures de-
note parts by weight:
I. — Paraffine wax, 70; stearine, 15;
petroleum, 15.
II. — Paraffine wax, 90; stearine, 5;
petroleum, 5. Recipe I of course gives
candles more transparent than does
recipe II. The 15 per cent may be re-
garded as the extreme limit consistent
with proper solidity of the candles.
To Prevent the Trickling of Burning
Candles. — Dip the candles in the fol-
lowing mixture:
Magnesium sulphate 15 parts
Dextrin 15 parts
Water 100 parts
The solution dries quickly and does
not affect the burning of the candle,
146
CANDLE— CARAMELS
Candle Coloring. — Candles are colored
either throughout or they sometimes
consist of a white body that is covered
with a colored layer of paraffine wax.
According to the material from which
candles are made (stearine, paraffine,
or ozokerite), the process of coloring
varies.
Stearine, owing to its acid character,
dissolves the coal-tar colors much more
readily than do the perfectly neutral par-
affine and ozokerite waxes. For coloring
stearine the necessary quantity of the
color is added to the melted mass and
well stirred in; if the solution effected
happens to be incomplete, a small addi-
tion of alcohol will prove an effective
remedy. It is also an advantage to dis-
solve the colors previously in alcohol and
add the concentrated solution to the
melted stearine. The alcohol soon evap-
orates, and has no injurious effect on
the quality of the stearine.
For a number of years there have been
on the market so-called " fat colors,"
formed by making concentrated solu-
tions of the color, and also special prep-
arations of the colors in stearine. They
are more easily applied, and are, there-
fore, preferred to the powdered aniline
colors, which are apt to cause trouble by
being accidentally distributed in soluble
particles, where they are not wanted.
Since paraffine and ozokerite dissolve
comparatively little, they will not be-
come colored, and so must be colored
indirectly. One way is to dissolve the
color in oleic acid or in stearine acid and
add the »olution to the wax to be col-
ored. Turpentine may be employed for
the same purpose. Concerning the colors
suitable for candles, there are the cosine
colors previously mentioned, and also
chroline yellow, auramine, taniline blue,
tartrazine, brilliant green, etc. The
latter, however, bleaches so rapidly that
it can hardly be recommended. An
interesting phenomenon is the change
some colors undergo in a warm tem-
perature; for instance, some blues turn
red at a moderate degree of heat (120°
F.) and return to blue only when com-
pletely cooled off; this will be noticed
while the candle mixture is being melted
previous to molding into candles.
CANDLES (FUMIGATING) :
See Fumigants.
CANDY COLORS AND FLAVORS:
See Confectionery.
CANDY:
See Confectionery.
CANVAS WATERPROOFING ;
See Waterproofing.
CAOUTCHOUC :
See Rubber.
CAOUTCHOUC SOLUTION FOR
PAINTS :
See Paint.
CAPPING MIXTURES FOR BOTTLES :
See Bottle-Capping Mixtures.
CAPSULE VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
CARAMEL :
Cloudless Caramel Coloring. — I. —
When it is perfectly understood that in
the manufacture of caramel, sugar is to
be deprived of the one molecule of its
water of constitution, it will be apparent
that heat must not be carried on to the
point of carbonization. Cloudy cara-
mel is due to the fact that part of the
sugar has been dissociated and reduced
to carbon, which is insoluble in water.
Hence the cloudiness. Caramel may be
made on a small scale in the following
manner: Place 4 or 5. ounces of granu-
lated sugar in a shallow porcelain-lined
evaporating dish and apply either a
direct heat or that of an oil bath, con-
tinuing the heat until caramelization
takes place or until tumescence ceases
and the mass has assumed a dark-brown
color. Then carefully add sufficient
water to bring the viscid mass to the
consistence of a heavy syrup. Extreme
care must be taken and the face and
hands protected during the addition of
the water, owing to the intensity of the
heat of the mass, and consequent sput-
tering.
II. — The ordinary sugar coloring
material is made from sugar or glucose
by heating it, while being constantly
stirred, up to a temperature of about
405° F. A metal pan capable of holding
nearly ten times as much as the sugar
used, is necessary so as to retain the
mass in its swollen condition. As soon
as it froths up so as nearly to fill the pan,
an action which occurs suddenly, the fire
must instantly be extinguished or re-
moved. The finished product will be
insoluble if more than about 15 per cent
of its weight is driven off by the heat.
CARAMEL IN FOOD :
See Food.
CARAMELS :
See Confectionery.
CARBOLIC ACID— CARPET SOAP
147
CARBOLIC ACID.
Perfumed Carbolic Acid. —
I. — Carbolic acid (cryst.). 1 ounce
Alcohol 1 ounce
Oil bergamot 10 minims
Oil eucalyptus 10 minims
Oil citronella 3 minims
Tincture cudbear. ... 10 minims
Water, to make 10 ounces
Set aside for several days, and then
filter through fuller's earth.
II. — Carbolic acid (cryst.) 4 drachms
Cologne water 4 drachms
Dilute acetic acid. ... 9 ounces
Keep in a cool place for a few days,
and filter.
Treatment of Carbolic-Acid Burns. —
Thoroughly wash the hands with alco-
hol, and the burning and tingling will
almost immediately cease. Unless em-
ployed immediately, however, the alco-
hol has no effect. When the time
elapsed since the burning is too great
for alcohol to be of value, brush the
burns with a saturated solution of picric
acid in water.
Decolorization of Carbolic Acid. — To
decolorize the acid the following simple
method is recommended. For purify-
ing carbolic acid which has already be-
come quite brown-red on account of
having been kept in a tin vessel, the re-
ceptacle is exposed for a short time to
a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.), thus
causing only a part of the contents to
melt. In this state the acid is put into
glass funnels and left to stand for 10 to
12 days in a room which is likewise
kept at the above temperature. Clear
white crystals form from the drippings,
which remained unchanged, protected
from air and light, while by repeating
the same process more clear crystals are
obtained from the solidified dark col-
ored mother lye. In this manner 75 to
80 per cent of clear product is obtained
altogether.
Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid.-—
Any stronger smelling substance will dis-
guise the odor of carbolic acid, to an ex-
tent at least, but it is a difficult odor to
disguise on account of its persistence.
Camphor and some of the volatile oils,
such as peppermint, cajeput, caraway,
clove, and wintergreen may be used.
To Restore Reddened Carbolic Acid.
— Demont's method consists in melting
the acid on the water bath, adding 12 per
cent of alcohol of 95 per cent, letting cool
down and, after the greater part of the
substance has crystallized out, decanting
the liquid residue. The crystals ob-
tained in this manner are snowy white,
and on being melted yield a nearly color-
less liquid. The alcohol may be recov-
ered by redistillation at a low tempera-
ture. This is a rather costly procedure.
CARBOLIC SOAP:
See Soap.
CARBOLINEUM:
See also Paints and Wood.
Preparation of Carbolineum. — I. — Melt
together 50 parts of American rosin (F)
and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil (yel-
low oil), and add, with stirring, 20 parts
of rosin oil (rectified).
II. — Sixty parts, by weight, of black
coal tar oil of a specific gravity higher
than 1.10; 25 parts, by weight, of creo-
sote oil; 25 parts, by weight, of beech-
wood tar oil of a higher specific weight
than 0.9. Mix together and heat to
about 347° F., or until the fumes given
off begin to deposit soot. The resulting
carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat
thick consistency; when cool it is ready
for use and is packed in casks. This
improved carbolineum is applied to wood
or masonry with a brush; the surfaces
treated dry quickly, very soon loose the
odor of the carbolineum, and are effec-
tively protected from dampness and for-
mation of fungi.
CARBON PRINTING:
See Photography.
CARBON PROCESS IN PHOTOGRA-
PHY:
See Photography.
CARBONYLE :
See Wood.
CARBUNCLE REMEDIES:
See Boil Remedy.
CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN :
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE
FOR:
See Adhesives under Cements and
Waterproof Glues.
CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
CARMINATIVES :
See Pain Killers.
CARPET PRESERVATION:
See Household Formulas.
CARPET SOAP:
See Soap.
148
CASEIN
CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING
See Leather.
CARRON OIL:
See Cosmetics.
CASE HARDENING:
See Steel.
Casein
Dried Casein, its Manufacture and
Uses. — For the production of casein,
skimmed milk or buttermilk is used,
articles of slight value, as they cannot be
employed for feeding hogs or for making
cheese, except of a very inferior sort, of
little or no alimentive qualities. This
milk is heated to from 70° to 90° C.
(175°-195° F.), and sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acid is added until it no longer
causes precipitation. The precipitate
is washed to free it from residual lactose,
redissolved in a sodium carbonate solu-
tion, and again precipitated, this time by
lactic acid. It is again washed, dried,
and pulverized. It takes 8 gallons of
skimmed milk to make 1 pound of dry
casein.
In the manufacture of fancy papers,
or papers that are made to imitate the
appearance of various cloths, laces,
ana silks, casein is very widely used.
It is also largely used in waterproof-
ing tissues, for preparation of water-
proof products, and various articles
prepared from agglomeration of cork
(packing boards, etc.). With lime water
casein makes a glue that resists heat,
steam, etc. It also enters into the manu-
facture of the various articles made from
artificial ivory (billiard balls, combs,
toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid,
meerschaum, etc., and is finding new
uses every day.
Casein, as known, may act the part
of an acid and combine with bases to
form caseinates or caseates; among these
compounds, caseinates of potash, of
soda, and of ammonia are the only ones
soluble in water; all the others are insol-
uble and may be readily prepared by
double decomposition. Thus, for ex-
ample, to obtain caseinate of alumina it
is sufficient to add to a solution of casein
in caustic soda, a solution of sulphate of
alumina; an insoluble precipitate of ca-
sein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly
formed.
This precipitate ought to be freed
from the sulphate of soda (formed by
double decomposition), by means of pro-
longed washing. Pure, ordinary cellu-
lose may be incorporated with it by this
process, producing a new compound,
cheaper than pure cellulose, although
possessing the same properties, and capa-
ble of replacing it in all its applications.
According to the results desired, in
transparency, color, hardness, etc., the
most suitable caseinate should be select-
ed. Thus, if a translucent compound is
to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina
yields the best. If a white compound is
desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of mag-
nesia, should be chosen; and for colored
products the caseinates of iron, copper,
and nickel will give varied tints.
The process employed for the new prod-
ucts, with a base of celluloid and casein-
ate, is as follows: On one hand casein is
dissolved in a solution of caustic soda (100
parts of water for 10 to 25 parts of soda),
and this liquid is filtered to separate the
matters not dissolved and the impurities.
On the other hand, a salt of the base of
which the caseinate is desired is dis-
solved, and the solution filtered. It is
well not to operate on too concentrated a
solution. The two solutions are mixed
in a receptacle provided with a mechan-
ical stirrer, in order to obtain the in-
soluble caseinate precipitate in as finely
divided a state as possible. This precip-
itate should be washed thoroughly, so
as to free it from the soda salt formed by
double decomposition, but on account of
its gummy or pasty state, this washing
presents certain difficulties, and should
DC done carefully. After the washing
the mass is freed from the greater part
of water contained, by draining, followed
by drying, or energetic pressing; then it
is washed in alcohol, dried or pressed
again, and is ready to be incorporated in
the plastic mass of the celluloid.
For the latter immersion and washing
it has been found that an addition of 1 to
5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it
renders the mass more plastic, and facil-
itates the operation of mixing. This
may be conducted in a mixing appara-
tus; but, in practice, it is found prefer-
able to effect it with a rolling mill, oper-
ating as follows:
The nitro-cellulose is introduced in
the plastic state, and moistened with a
solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50
parts of camphor in 50 to 70 of alcohol
for 100 of nitro-cellulose) as it is prac-
ticed in celluloid factories.
This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is
placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of
which are slightly heated at the same
time as the cdseinate, prepared as above;
then the whole mass is worked by the
cylinders until the mixture of the two
CASTING
149
is perfectly homogeneous, and the final
mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out
in leaves in the same way as practiced
for pure celluloid.
These leaves are placed in hydraulic
presses, where they are compressed,
first hot, then cold, and the block thus
formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the
thickness desired. These leaves are
dried in an apparatus in the same way
as ordinary celluloid. The product
resembles celluloid, and has all its prop-
erties. At 90° to 100° C. (194° to 212°
F.), it becomes quite plastic, and is
easily molded. It may be sawed, filed,
turned, and carved without difficulty,
and takes on a superb polish. It burns
less readily than celluloid, and its com-
bustibility diminishes in proportion as
the percentage of casemate increases;
finally, the cost price is less than that of
celluloid, and by using a large proportion
of caseinate, products may be manu-
factured at an extremely low cost.
Phosphate of Casein and its Pro-
duction.— The process is designed to
produce a strongly acid compound of
phosphoric acid and casein, practically
stable and not hydroscopic, which may
be employed as an acid ingredient in
bakers' yeast and for other purposes.
The phosphoric acid may be obtained
by any convenient method; for example,
by decomposing dicalcic or monocalcic
phosphate with sulphuric acid. The
commercial phosphoric acid may also be
employed.
The casein may be precipitated from
the skimmed milk by means of a suitable
acid, and should be washed with cold
water to remove impurities. A casein-
ate may also be employed, such as a
compound of casein and an alkali or
an alkaline earth.
The new compound is produced in the
following way: A sufficient quantity of
phosphoric acid is incorporated with the
casein or a caseinate in such a way as to
insure sufficient acidity in the resulting
compound. The employment of 23 to
25 parts by weight of phosphoric acid
with 75 to 77 parts of casein constitutes
a good proportion.
An aqueous solution of phosphoric
acid is made, and the casein introduced
in the proportion of 25 to 50 per cent of
the weight of the phosphoric acid pres-
ent. The mixture is then heated till the
curdled form of the casein disappears,
and it assumes a uniform fluid form.
Then the mixture is concentrated to a
syrupy consistency. The remainder of
the casein or of the caseinate is added
and mixed /with the solution until it is
intimately incorporated and the mass
becomes uniform. The compound is
dried in a current of hot air, or in any
other way that will not discolor it, and it
is ground to a fine powder. The inti-
mate union of the phosphoric acid and
casein during the gradual concentra-
tion of the mixture and during the grind-
ing and drying, removes the hydroscopic
property of the phosphoric acid, and
produces a dry and stable product,
which may be regarded as a hyperphos-
phate of casein. When it is mixed with
water, it swells and dissolves slowly.
When this compound is mingled with its
equivalent of sodium bicarbonate it
yields about 17 per cent of gas.
CASEIN CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
CASEIN VARNISH :
See Varnishes.
CASKS :
To Render Shrunken Wooden Casks
Watertight. — When a wooden receptacle
has dried up it naturally cannot hold the
water poured into it for the purpose of
swelling it, and the pouring has to be
repeated many times before the desired
end is reached. A much quicker way is
to stuff the receptacle full of straw or bad
hay, laying a stone on top and then filling
the vessel with water. Although the
water runs off again, the moistened
straw remains behind and greatly assists
the swelling up of the wood.
CASSIUS, PURPLE OF:
See Gold.
CASKET TRIMMINGS:
See Castings.
CASTS (PLASTER), PRESERVATION
OF:
See Plaster.
CASTS, REPAIRING OF BROKEN :
See Adhesives and Lutes.
CASTS FROM WAX MODELS:
See Modeling.
Casting
Castings Out of Various Metals. — Un-
til recent years metal castings were all
made in sand molds; that is, the patterns
were used for the impressions in the
sand, the same as iron castings are pro-
duced to-day. Nearly all of the softer
metals are now cast in brass, copper,
zinc, or iron molds, and only the silver
150
CASTING
and German silver articles, like wire
real bronze, are cast the old way, in sand.
Aluminum can be readily cast in iron
molds, especially if the molds have been
previously heated to nearly the same
temperature as the molten aluminum,
and after the molds are full the metal is
cooled gradually and the casting taken
out as soon as cooled enough to prevent
breaking from the shrinkage. Large
bicycle frames have been successfully
cast in this manner.
The French bronzes, which are imi-
tations, are cast in copper or brass molds.
The material used is principally zinc and
tin, and an unlimited number of castings
can be made in the mold, but if a real
bronze piece is to be produced it must be
out of copper and the mold made in
sand. To make the castings hollow,
with sand, a core is required. This fills
the inside of the figure so that the molten
copper runs around it, and as the core is
made out of sand, the same can be after-
wards washed out. If the casting is to be
hollow and is to be cast in a metal mold,
then the process is very simple. The
mold is filled with molten metal, and
when the operator thinks the desired
thickness has cooled next to the walls, he
pours out the balance. An experienced
man can make hollow castings in this
way, and make the walls of any thick-
ness.
Casket hardware trimmings, which
are so extensively used on coffins, es-
pecially the handles, are nearly all cast
out of tin and antimony, and in brass
molds. The metal used is brittle, and
requires strengthening at the weak por-
tions, and this is mostly done with wood
filling or with iron rods, which are
secured in the molds before the metal is
poured in.
Aluminum castings, which one has
procured at the foundries, are usually
alloyed with zinc. This has a close affin-
ity with aluminum, and alloys readily;
but this mixture is a detriment and
causes much trouble afterwards. While
this alloy assists the molder to produce
his castings easily, on the other hand it
will not polish well and will corrode in
a short time. Those difficulties may be
avoided if pure aluminum is used.
Plaster of Paris molds are the easiest
made for pieces where only a few cast-
ings are wanted. The only difficulty is
that it requires a few days to dry the
plaster thoroughly, and that is abso-
lutely necessary to use them successfully.
Not only can the softer metals be run
into plaster molds, but gold and silver
can be run into them. A plaster mold
should be well smoked over a gaslight,
or until well covered with a layer of soot,
and the metal should be poured in as
cool a state as it will run.
To Prevent the Adhesion of Modeling
Sand to Castings. — Use a mixture of
finely ground coke and graphite. Al-
though the former material is highly por-
ous, possessing this quality even as a
fine powder, and the fine pulverization
is a difficult operation, still the invention
attains its purpose of producing an ab-
solutely smooth surface. This is ac-
complished by mixing both substances
intimately and adding melted rosin,
whereupon the whole mass is exposed to
heat, so that the rosin decomposes, its
carbon residue filling up the finest pores
of the coke. The rosin, in melting,
carries the fine graphite particles along
into the pores. After cooling the mass
is first ground in edge mills, then again in
a suitable manner and sifted. Sur-
prising results are obtained with this
material. It is advisable to take pro-
portionately little graphite, as the dif-
ferent co-efficients of expansion of the
two substances may easily exercise a dis-
turbing action. One-fifth of graphite,
in respect to the whole mass, gives the
best results, but it is advisable to add
plenty of rosin. The liquid mixture
must, before burning, possess the con-
sistency of mortar.
Sand Holes in Cast-Brass Work.—
Cast-brass work, when it presents nu-
merous and deep sand holes, should be
well dipped into the dipping acid before
being polished, in order thoroughly to
clean these objectionable cavities; and
the polishing should be pushed to an ex-
tent sufficient to obliterate the smaller
sand holes, if possible, as this class of
work looks very unsightly, when plated
and finished, if pitted all over with mi-
nute hollows. The larger holes cannot,
without considerable labor, be obliter-
ated; indeed, it not infrequently happens
that in endeavoring to work out such
cavities they become enlarged, as they
often extend deep into the body of the
metal. An experienced hand knows
how far he dare go in polishing work of
this awkward character.
Black Wash for Casting Molds.—
Gumlac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts;
lampblack, in sufficient quantity to color.
How to Make a Plaster Cast of a Coin
or Medal. — The most exact observ-
ance of any written or printed directions
is no guarantee of success. Practice
alone can give expertness in this work
CASTING
151
The composition of the mold is of the
most varied, but the materials most gen-
erally used are plaster of Paris and brick
dust, in the proportion of 2 parts of the
first to 1 of the second, stirred in water,
with the addition of a little sal ammo-
niac. The best quality of plaster for
this purpose is the so-called alabaster,
and the brick dust should be as finely
powdered as possible. The addition of
clay, dried and very finely powdered, is
recommended. With very delicate ob-
jects the proportion of plaster may be
slightly increased. The dry material
should be thoroughly mixed before the
addition of water.
As the geometrically exact contour of
the coin or medal is often the cause
of breaking of the edges, the operator
sometimes uses wax to make the edges
appear half round and it also allows the
casting to be more easily removed from
the second half of the mold. Each half
of the mold should be about the thickness
of the finger. The keys, so called, of
every plaster casting must not be for-
gotten. In the first casting some little
half-spherical cavities should be scooped
out, which will appear in the second half-
round knobs, and which, by engaging
with the depressions, will ensure exact-
ness in the finished mold.
After the plaster has set, cut a canal
for the flow of the molten casting mate-
rial, then dry the mold thoroughly in
an oven strongly heated. The halves
are now ready to be bound together with
a light wire. When bound heat the
mold gradually and slowly and let the
mouth of the canal remain underneath
while the heating is in progress, in order
to prevent the possible entry of dirt or
foreign matter. The heating should be
continued as long as there is a suspicion
of remaining moisture. When finally
assured of this fact, take out the mold,
open it, and blow it out, to make sure of
absolute cleanness. Close and bind
again and place on a hearth of fine, hot
sa,nd. The mold should still be glowing
when the casting is made. The ladle
should contain plenty of metal, so as to
hold the heat while the casting is being
made. The presence of a little zinc in
the metal ensures a sharp casting.
Finally, to ensure success, it is always
better to provide two molds in case of
accident. Even the most* practiced
metal molders take this precaution, es-
pecially when casting delicate objects.
How to Make Castings of Insects. —
The object — a dead beetle, for example
— is first arranged in a natural position,
and the feet are connected with an oval
rim of wax. It is then fixed in the cen-
ter of a paper or wooden box by means of
Eieces of fine wire, so that it is perfectly
-ee, and thicker wires are run from the
sides of the box to the object, which sub-
sequently serve to form air channels in
the mold by their removal. A wooden
stick, tapering toward the bottom, is
placed upon the back of the insect to
produce a runner for casting. The box
is then filled up with a paste with 3
parts of plaster of Paris and 1 of brick
dust, made up with a solution of alum
and sal ammoniac. It is also well first to
brush the object with this paste to pre-
vent the formation of air bubbles. Af-
ter the mold thus formed has set, the
object is removed from the interior by
first reducing it to ashes. It is, there-
fore, allowed to dry, very slowly at first,
by leaving in the shade at a normal tem-
perature (as in India this is much higher
than in our zone, it will be necessary to
place the mold in a moderately warm
place), and afterwards heating gradually
to a red heat. This incinerates the ob-
ject, and melts the waxen base upon
which it is placed. The latter escapes,
and is burned as it does so, and the ob-
ject, reduced to fine ashes, is removed
through the wire holes as suggested
above. The casting is then made in the
ordinary manner.
Casting of Soft Metal Castings.— I.— It
is often difficult to form flat back or half
castings out of the softer metals so that
they will run full, owing mostly to the
thin edges and frail connections. In-
stead of using solid metal backs for the
molds it is better to use cardboard, or
heavy, smooth paper, fastened to a
wooden board fitted to the back of the
other half of the mold. By this means
very thin castings may be produced that
would be more difficult with a solid
metal back.
II. — To obtain a full casting in brass
molds for soft metal two important
points should be observed. One is to
have the deep recesses vented so the air
will escape, and the other is to have the
mold properly blued. The bluing is
best done by dipping the mold in sul-
phuric acid, then placing it on a gas
stove until the mold is a dark color.
Unless this bluing is done it will be im-
possible to obtain a sharp casting.
Drosses.— All the softer grades of
metal throw off considerable dross,
which is usually skimmed off; especially
with tin and its composition. Should much
of this gather on the top of the molten
152
CASTING
metal, the drosses should all be saved,
and melted down when there is enough
for a kettle full. Dross may be remelted
five or six times before all the good
metal is out.
Fuel. — Where a good soft coal can be
had at a low price, as in the middle West,
this is perhaps the cheapest and easiest
fuel to use; and, besides, it has some ad-
vantages over gas, which is so much used
in the East. A soft-coal fire can be regu-
lated to keep the metal at an even tem-
perature, and it is especially handy to
keep the metal in a molten state during
the noon hour. This refers particularly
to the gas furnaces that are operated
from the power plant in the shop; when
this power shuts down during the noon
hour the metal becomes chilled, and
much time is lost by the remelting after
one o'clock, or at the beginning in the
morning.
Molds. — I. — Brass molds for the cast-
ing of soft metal ornaments out of bri-
tannia, pewter, spelter, etc., should be
made out of brass that contains enough
zinc to produce a light-colored brass.
While this hard brass is more difficult
for the mold maker to cut, the superior-
ity over the dark red copper-colored brass
is that it will stand more heat and
rougher usage and thereby offset the
extra labor of cutting the hard brass.
The mold should be heavy enough to re-
tain sufficient heat while the worker
is removing a finished casting from the
mold so that the next pouring will come
full. If the mold is too light it cools
more quickly, and consequently the cast-
ings are chilled and will not run full.
Where the molds are heavy enough they
will admit the use of a swab and water
after each pouring. This chills the
casting so that it can be removed easily
with the plyers.
II. — Molds for the use of soft metal
castings may be made out of soft metal.
This is done with articles that are not
numerous, or not often used; and may
be looked upon as temporary. The
molds are made in part the same as when
of brass, and out of tin that contains as
much hardening as possible. The hard-
ening consists of antimony and copper.
This metal mold must be painted over
several times with Spanish red, which
tends to prevent the metal from melt-
ing. The metal must not be used too
hot, otherwise it will melt the mold. By
a little careful manipulation many pieces
can be cast with these molds.
III. — New iron or brass molds must
be blued before they can be used for
| casting purposes. This is done by
placing the mold face downward on a
charcoal fire, or by swabbing with sul-
phuric acid, then placing over a gas
name or charcoal fire until the mold is
perfectly oxidized.
IV. — A good substantial mold for
small castings of soft metal is made of
brass. ^ The expense of making the cast
mold is considerable, however, and, on
that account, some manufacturers are
making their molds by electro-deposition.
This produces a much cheaper mold,
which can be made very quickly. The
electro-deposited mold, however, is very
frail in comparison with a brass casting,
and consequently must be handled very
carefully to keep its shape. The elec-
tro-deposited ones are made out of cop-
per, and the backs filled in with a softer
metal. The handles are secured with
screws.
Plaster Molds. — Castings of any mefal
can be done in a plaster mold, provided
the mold has dried, at a moderate heat,
for several days. Smoke the mold well
with a brand of rosin to insure a full
cast. Where there are only one or two
ornaments or figures to cast, it may be
done in a mold made out of dental plaster.
After the mold is made and set enough
so that it can be taken apart, it should be
placed in a warm place and left to dry
for a day or two. When ready to use
the inside should be well smoked over
a gaslight; the mold should be well
warmed and the metal must not be too
hot. Very good castings may be ob-
tained this way; the only objection being
the length of time needed for a thorough
drying of the mold.
Temperature of Metal.— Metals for
casting purposes should not be over-
heated. If any of the softer metals show
blue colors after cooling it is an indi-
cation that the metal is too hot. The
metal should be heated enough so that it
can be poured, and the finished casting
have a bright, clean appearance. The
mold may be very warm, then the metal
need not be so hot for bright, clean cast-
ings. Some of the metals will not stand
reheating too often, as this will cause them
to run sluggish. Britannia metal should
not be skimmed or stirred too much,
otherwise there will be too much loss in
the dross.
CASTING IN WAX:
See Modeling.
CASTINGS, TO SOFTEN IRON:
See Iron.
CASTOR OIL
153
CASTOR OIL :
Purifying Rancid Castor Oil.— To
clean rancid castor oil mix 100 parts of
the oil at 95° F. with a mixture of 1 part
of alcohol (96 per cent) and 1 part of
sulphuric acid. Allow to settle for 24
hours and then carefully decant from
the precipitate. Now wash with warm
water, boiling for A hour; allow to settle
for 24 hours in well closed vessels, after
which time the purified oil may be taken
off.
How to Pour Out Castor Oil. — Any one
who has tried to pour castor oil from a
square, 5-gallon can, when it is full,
knows how difficult it is to avoid a mess.
This, however, may be avoided by hav-
ing a hole punched in the cap which
screws onto the can, and a tube, 2 inches
long and f of an inch in diameter, sol-
dered on. With a wire nail a hole is
punched in the top of the can between the
screw cap and the edge of the can. This
will admit air while pouring. Resting
the can on a table, with the screw-cap
tube to the rear, the can is carefully tilted
forward with one hand and the shop
bottle held in the other. In this way the
bottle may be filled without spilling any
of the oil and that, too, without a funnel.
It is preferable to rest the can on a table
when pouring from a 1- or 2-gallon
square varnish can, when filling shop
bottles. With the opening to the rear,
the can is likewise tilted forward slowly
so as to allow the surface of the liquid to
become "at rest." Even mobile liquids,
such as spirits of turpentine, may be
poured into shop bottles without a fun-
nel. Of course, the main thing is that
the can be lowered slowly, otherwise the
first portion may spurt out over the bot-
tle. With 5-gallon round cans it is
possible to fill shop bottles in the same
manner by resting the can on a box or
counter. When a funnel is used for non-
greasy liquids, the funnel may be slightly
raised with the thumb and little finger
from the neck of the bottle, while hold-
ing the bottle by the neck between the
middle and ring fingers, to allow egress
of air.
Tasteless Castor Oil.—
I.— Pure castor oil. . 1 pint
Cologne spirit . . 3 fluidounces
Oil of winter-
green 40 minims
Oil of sassafras. 20 minims
Oil of anise 15 minims
Saccharine 5 grains
Hot water, a sufficient quantity.
Place the castor oil in a gallon bottle.
Add a pint of hot water and shake vig-
orously for about 15 minutes. Then
pour the mixture into a vessel with a
stopcock at its base, and allow the mix-
ture to stand tor 12 hours. Draw off
the oil, excepting the last portion, which
must be rejected. Dissolve the essential
oils and saccharine in the cologne spirit
and add to the washed castor oil.
II. — First prepare an aromatic solution
of saccharine as follows:
Refined saccharine. . 25 parts
Vanillin 5 parts
Absolute alcohol. . . . 950 parts
Oil of cinnamon .... 20 parts
Dissolve the saccharine and vanillin
in the alcohol, then add the cinnamon oil,
agitate well and filter. Of this liquid add
20 parts to 980 parts of castor oil and
mix by agitation. Castor oil, like cod-
liver oil, may be rendered nearly taste-
less, it is claimed, by treating it as fol-
lows: Into a matrass of suitable size put
50 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground
as fine as possible, and 25 parts of puri-
fied and freshly prepared bone or ivory
black. Pour over the mass 1,000 parts
of the oil to be deodorized and rendered
tasteless, and mix. Cork the container
tightly, put on a water bath, and raise
the temperature to about 140° F. Keep
at this heat from 15 to 20 minutes, then
let cool down, slowly, to 90°, at which
temperature let stand for 3 hours.
Finally filter, and put up in small, well-
stoppered bottles.
III. — Vanillin 3 grains
Garantose 4 grains
Ol. menth. pip. ... 8 minims
Alcoholis 3 drachms
Ol. ricinus 12 ounces
Ol. olivae (im-
ported), quan-
tity sufficient ... 1 pint
M. ft. sol.
Mix vanillin, garantose, ol. menth.
pip. with alcohol and add castor oil and
olive oil.
Dose: One drachm to 2 fluidounces.
IV.— The following keeps well:
Castor oil 24 parts
Glycerine 24 parts
Tincture of orange
peel . . : 8 parts
Tincture of senega 2 parts
Cinnamon water
enough to make. 100 parts
Mix and make an emulsion. Dose is
1 tablespoonful.
V. — One part of common cooking mo-
lasses to 2 of castor oil is the best dis-
154
CASTOR OIL— CATATYPY
guise for the taste of the oil that can be
used.
VI. — Castor oil 1£ ounces
Powdered acacia. . 2 drachms
Sugar 2 drachms
Peppermint water. 4 ounces
Triturate the sugar and acacia, adding
the oil gradually; when these have been
thoroughly incorporated add the pep-
permint water .in small portions, tritu-
rating the mixture until an emulsion is
formed.
VII. — This formula for an emulsion
is said to yield a fairly satisfactory prod-
uct:
Castor oil 500 c.c.
Mucilage of acacia 125 c.c.
Spirit of gaultheria 10 grams
Sugar 1 gram
Sodium bicarbonate. 1 gram
VIII. — Castor oil 1 ounce
Compound tinc-
ture of carda-
mom 4 drachms
Oil of wintergreen 3 drops
Powdered acacia.. 3 drachms
Sugar 2 drachms
Cinnamon water enough to
make 4 ounces.
IX. — Castor oil 12 ounces
Vanillin 3 grains
Saccharine ....... 4 grains
Oil of peppermint. 8 minims
Alcohol 3 drachms
Olive oil enough to make 1 pint.
In any case, use only a fresh oil.
How toTake Castor Oil.— The disgust
for castor oil is due to the odor, not to the
taste. If the patient grips the nostrils
firmly before pouring out the dose,
drinks the oil complacently, and then
thoroughly cleanses the mouth, lips,
larynx, etc., with water, removing the
last vestige of the oil before removing
the fingers, he will not get the least taste
from the oil, which is bland and taste-
less. It all depends upon preventing any
oil from entering the nose during the
time while there is any oil present.
Castor-Oil Chocolate Lozenges. —
Cacao, free from oil . 250 parts
Castor oil 250 parts
Sugar, pulverized- . . 500 parts
Vanillin sugar 5 parts
Mix the chocolate and oil and heat in
the water, both under constant stirring.
Have the sugar well dried and add, stir-
ring constantly, to the molten mass.
Continue the heat for 30 minutes, then
pour out and divide into lozenges in the
usual way.
CAT DISEASES AND THEIR REME-
DIES: See Insecticides and Veteri-
nary Formulas.
CATATYPY.
It is a well-known fact that the reac-
tions of the compounds of silver, plat-
inum, and chromium in photographic
processes are generally voluntary ones
and that the light really acts only as an
accelerator, that is to say the chemical
properties of the preparations also change
in the dark, though a longer time is re-
quired. When these preparations are ex-
posed to the light under a negative, the
modification of their chemical proper-
ties is accelerated in such a way that,
through the gradations of the tone-
values in the negative, the positive print
is formed. Now it has been found that
we also have such accelerators in ma-
terial substances that can be used in the
light, the process being termed catalysis.
It is remarkable that these substances,
called catalyzers, apparently do not take
part in the process, but bring about
merely by their presence, decomposition
or combination of other bodies during or
upon contact. Hence, catalysis may be
defined, in short, as the act of changing
or accelerating the speed of a chemical
reaction by means of agents which ap-
pear to remain stable.
Professor Ostwald and Dr. O. Gros,
of the Leipsic University, have given the
name of "catatypy" to the new copying
process. The use of light is entirely
done away with, except that for the sake
of convenience the manipulations are
executed in the light. All that is neces-
sary is to bring paper and negative into
contact, no matter whether in the light
or in the dark. Hence the negative (if
necessary a positive may also be em-
ployed) need not even be transparent,
for the ascending and descending action
of the tone values in the positive picture
is produced only by the quantity in the
varying density of the silver powder
contained in the negative. Hence no
photographic (light) picture, but a ca-
tatypic picture (produced by contact) is
created, but the final result is the same.
Catatypy is carried out as follows:
Pour dioxide of hydrogen over the nega-
tive, which can be done without any
damage to the latter, and lay a piece of
paper on (sized or unsized, rough or
smooth, according to the effect desired);
by a contact lasting a few seconds the
paper receives the picture, dioxide of
hydrogen being destroyed. From a
single application several prints can be
made. The acquired picture — still in-
CATATYPY— CELLULOID
155
visible — may now in the further course
of the process, have a reducing or oxy-
dizing action. As picture-producing
bodies, the large group of iron salts are
above all eminently adapted, but other
substances, such as chromium, manga-
nese, etc., as well as pigments with glue
solutions may also be employed. The
development takes place as follows:
When the paper which has been in con-
tact with the negative is drawn through
a solution of ferrous oxide, the protoxide
is transformed into oxide by the per-
oxide, hence a yellow positive picture,
consisting of iron oxide, results, which
can be readily changed into other com-
pounds, so that the most varying tones of
color can be obtained. With tne use of
pigments, in conjunction with a glue
solution, the action is as follows: In the
places where the picture is, the layer with
the pigments becomes insoluble and all
other dye stuffs can be washed off with
water.
The chemical inks and reductions, as
well as color pigments, of which the pic-
tures consist, have been carefully tested
and are composed of such as are known
to possess unlimited durability.
After a short contact, simply immerse
the picture in the respective solution,
wash out, and a permanent picture is
obtained.
CATERPILLAR DESTROYERS :
See Insecticides.
CATGUT:
Preparation of Catgut Sutures. — The
catgut is stretched tightly over a glass
plate tanned in 5 per cent watery extract
of quebracho, washed £ or a short time in
water, subjected to the action of a 4 per
cent formalin solution for 24 to 48 hours,
washed in running water for 24 hours,
boiled in water for 10 to 15 minutes,
and stored in a mixture of absolute al-
cohol with 5 per cent glycerine and 4 per
cent carbolic acid. In experiments on
dogs, this suture material in aseptic
wounds remained intact for 65 days, and
was absorbed after 83 days. In infected
wounds it was absorbed after 32 days.
CATSUP (ADULTERATED):
See Foods.
CATTLE DIPS AND APPLICATIONS :
See Disinfectants and Insecticides.
CEILING CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, and also Household Formulas.
CELERY COMPOUND.
Celery (seed ground) . 25 parts
Coca leaves (ground). 25 parts
Black haw (ground).. 25 parts
Hyoscyamus leaves
(ground) 12£ parts
Podophyllum (pow-
dered) 10 parts
Orange peel (ground) 6 parts
Sugar (granulated).. . 100 parts
Alcohol 150 parts
Water, q. s. ad 400 parts
Mix the alcohol with 150 parts of
water and macerate drugs for 24 hours;
pack in percolator and pour on men-
struum till 340 parts is obtained ; dis-
solve sugar in it and strain.
CELLS, SOLUTIONS AND FILLERS
FOR BATTERY:
See Battery Solutions and Fillers.
CELLARS, WATERPROOF:
See Household Formulas.
CELLOIDIN PAPER:
See Paper.
Celluloid
New Celluloid. — M. Ortmann has as-
certained that turpentine produced by
the Pinus larix, generally denominated
Venice turpentine, in combination with
acetone (dimethyl ketone), yields the best
results; but other turpentines, such as
the American from the Pinus australis,
the Canada turpentine from the Pinus
balsamea, the French turpentine from
the Pinus maritima, and ketones, such
as the ketone of methyl-ethyl, the ketone
of dinaphthyl, the ketone of methyl-
oxynaphthyl, and the ketone of dioxy-
naphthyl, may be employed.
To put this process in practice, 1,000
parts of pyroxyline is prepared in the
usual manner, and mixed with 65 parts
of turpentine, or 250 parts of ketone and
250 parts of ether; 500 parts or 750 parts
of methyl alcohol is added, and a col-
orant, such as desired. Instead of tur-
pentine, rosins derived from it may be
employed. If the employment of cam-
phor is desired to a certain extent, it may
be added to the mixture. The whole is
shaken and left at rest for about 12 hours.
It is then passed between hot rollers, and
finally pressed, cut, and dried, like or-
dinary celluloid.
156
CELLULOID
The product thus obtained is without
odor, when camphor is not employed;
and in appearance and properties it can-
not be distinguished from ordinary cel-
luloid, while the expense of production is
considerably reduced.
Formol Albumen for Preparation of
Celluloid. — Formol has the property of
forming combinations with most albu-
minoid substances. These are not iden-
tical with reference to plasticity, and the
use which may be derived from them for
the manufacture of plastic substances.
This difference explains why albumen
should not be confounded with gelatin
or casein. With this in view, the Societe
Anonyme 1'Oyonnaxienne has originated
the following processes:
I. — The albumen may be that of the
egg or that of the blood, which are readily
found in trade. The formolizing may
be effected in the moist state or in the
dry state. The dry or moist albumen
is brought into contact with the solution
of commercial formol diluted to 5 or 10
per cent for an hour. Care must be
taken to pulverize the albumen, if it is
dry. The formol penetrates rapidly
into the albuminoid matter, and is fil-
tered or decanted and washed with
water until all the formol in excess has
completely disappeared; this it is easy to
ascertain by means of aniline water,
which produces a turbid white as long
as a trace of formic aldehyde remains.
The formol albumen is afterwards
dried at low temperature by submitting
it to the action of a current of dry air at
a temperature not exceeding 107° F.
Thus obtained, the product appears as
a transparent corneous substance. On
pulverizing, it becomes opaque and loses
its transparency. It is completely in-
soluble in water, but swells in this
liquid.
II. — The formol albumen is reduced
to a perfectly homogeneous powder, and
mixed intimately with the plastic matter
before rolling. This cannot be con-
sidered an adequate means for effecting
the mixture. It is necessary to introduce
the formol albumen, in the course of the
moistening, either by making an emul-
sion with camphor alcohol, or by mixing
it thoroughly with nitro-cellulose, or by
making simultaneously a thorough mix-
ture of the three substances. When the
mixture is accomplished, the paste is
rolled according to the usual operation.
The quantity of formol albumen to add
is variable, being diminished according
to the quantity of camphor.
Instead of adding the desiccated for-
mol albumen, it may previously be
swollen in water in order to render it
more malleable.
Instead of simple water, alkalinized or
acidified water may be taken for this pur-
pose, or even alcoholized water. The
albumen, then, should be pressed be-
tween paper or cloth, in order to remove
the excess of moisture.
Plastic Substances of Nitro -Cellulose
Base. — To manufacture plastic substances
the Compagnie Franyaise du Celluloid
commences by submitting casein to a
special operation. It is soaked with a
solution of acetate of urea in alcohol;
for 100 parts of casein 5 parts of acetate
of urea and 50 parts of alcohol are em-
ployed. The mass swells, and in 48
hours the casein is thoroughly penetrat-
ed. It is then ready to be incorporated
with the camphored nitro-cellulose. The
nitro-cellulose, having received the addi-
tion of camphor, is soaked in the alcohol,
and the mass is well mixed. The casein
prepared as described is introduced into
the mass. The whole is mixed and left
at rest for 2 days.
The plastic pulp thus obtained is
rolled, cut, and dried like ordinary cel-
lulose, and by the same processes and
apparatus. The pulp may also be con-
verted into tubes and other forms, like
ordinary celluloid.
It is advisable to subject the improved
plastic pulp to a treatment with formal-
dehyde for the purpose of rendering in-
soluble the casein incorporated in the
celluloid. The plastic product of nitro-
cellulose base, thus obtained, presents
in employment the same general proper-
ties as ordinary celluloid. It may be
applied to the various manufacturing
processes in use for the preparation of
articles of all kinds, and its cost price
diminishes more or less according to the
proportion of casein associated with the
ordinary celluloid. In this plastic prod-
uct various colorants may be incor-
porated, and the appearance of shell,
pearl, wood, marble, or ivory may also
be imparted.
Improved Celluloid. — This product is
obtained by mingling with celluloid, un-
der suitable conditions, gelatin or strong
glue of gelatin base. Iti s clear that the
replacement of part of the celluloid by
the gelatin, of which the cost is much
less, lowers materially the cost of the
final product. The result is obtained
without detriment to the qualities of the
objects. These are said to be of superior
properties, haying more firmness than
those of celluloid. And the new material
CELLULOID
157
is worked more readily than the celluloid
employed alone.
The new product may be prepared in
openvair or in a closed vessel under pres-
sure. When operated in the air, the gel-
atin is first immersed cold (in any form,
and in a state more or less pure) in alco-
hol marking about 140° F., with the
addition of a certain quantity (for exam-
ple, 5 to 10 per cent) of crystallizable
acetic acid. In a few hours the material
has swollen considerably, and it is then
introduced in alcohol of about 90 per cent,
and at the same time the celluloid pulp
(camphor and gun cotton), taking care
to add a little acetone. The proportion
of celluloid in the mixture may be 50 to
75 per cent of the weight of the gelatin,
more or less, according to the result
desired. After heating the mixture
slightly, it is worked, cold, by the rollers
ordinarily employed for celluloid and
other similar pastes, or by any other suit-
able methods.
The preparation in a closed vessel does
not differ from that which has been de-
scribed, except for the introduction of
the mixture of gelatin, celluloid, alco-
hol, and acetone, at the moment when
the heating is to be accomplished in an
autoclave heated with steam, capable of
supporting a pressure of 2 to 5 pounds,
and furnished with a mechanical agita-
tor. This method of proceeding abridges
the operation considerably ; the paste
comes from the autoclave well min-
gled, and is then submitted to the
action of rollers. There is but little
work in distilling the alcohol and acetic
acid in the autoclave. These may be
recovered, and on account of their evap-
oration the mass presents the desired
consistency when it reaches the rollers.
Whichever of the two methods of prep-
aration may be employed, the sub-
stance may be rolled as in the ordinary
process, if a boiler with agitator is made
use of; the mass may be produced in any
form.
Preparation of Uninflammable Cellu-
loid.— The operation of this process by
Woodward is the following: In a receiver
of glass or porcelain, liquefied fish glue
and gum arabic are introduced and
allowed to swell for 24 hours in a very
dry position, allowing the air to circulate
freely. The receiver is not covered.
Afterwards it is heated on a water bath,
and the contents stirred (for example,
by means of a porcelain spatula) until
the gum is completely liquefied. The
heating of the mass should not exceed
77° F. Then the gelatin is added in
such a way that there are no solid pieces.
The receiver is removed from the water
bath and colza oil added, while agitating
anew. When the mixture is complete
it is left to repose for 24 hours.
Before cooling, the mixture is passed
through a sieve in order to retain the
pieces which may not have been dis-
solved. After swelling, and the dissolu-
tion and purification by means of the
sieve, it is allowed to rest still in the
same position, with access of air. The
films formed while cooling may be re-
moved. The treatment of celluloid
necessitates employing a solution com-
pletely colorless and clear. The cellu-
loid to be treated while it is still in the
pasty state should be in a receiver of
glass, porcelain, or similar material.
The mass containing the fish glue is
poured in, drop by drop, while stirring
carefully, taking care to pour it in the
middle of the celluloid and to increase
the surface of contact.
When the mixture is complete, the cel-
luloid is ready to be employed and does
not produce flame when exposed.
The solution of fish glue may be pre-
pared by allowing 200 parts of it to swell
for 48 hours in 1,000 parts of cold dis-
tilled water. It is then passed through
the sieve, and the pieces which may re-
main are broken up, in order to mingle
them thoroughly with the water. Ten
parts of kitchen salt are then added, and
the whole mass passed through the
sieve.
This product may be utilized for the
preparation of photographic films or for
those used for cinematographs, or for
replacing hard caoutchouc for the insu-
lation of electric conductors, and for the
preparation of plastic objects.
Substitute for Camphor in the Prepa-
ration of Celluloid and Applicable to Other
Purposes. — In this process commercial
oil of turpentine, after being rectified by
distillation over caustic soda, is subjected
to the action of gaseous chlorhydric acid,
in order to produce the solid mono-
chlorhydrate of turpentine. After hav-
ing, by means of the press, extracted the
liquid monochlorhydrate, and after
several washings with cold water, the
solid matter is desiccated and introduced
into an autoclave apparatus capable of
resisting a pressure of 6 atmospheres.
Fifty per cent of caustic soda, calculated
on the weight of the monochlorhydrate,
and mingled with an equal quantity of
alcohol, is added in the form of a thick
solution. The apparatus is closed and
heated for several hours at the temper-
158
CELLULOID
ature of 284° to 302° F. The material
is washed several times for freeing it
from the mingled sodium chloride and
sodium hydrate, and the camphor re-
sulting from this operation is treated in
the following manner:
In an autoclave constructed for the
purpose, camphene and water strongly
mixed with sulphuric acid are introduced
and heated so as to attain 9 pounds of
pressure. Then an electric current is
applied, capable of producing the de-
composition of water. The mass is
constantly stirred, either mechanically
or more simply by allowing a little of the
steam to escape by a tap. In an hour,
at least, the material is drawn from the
apparatus, washed and dried, sublimed
according to need, and is then suitable
for replacing camphor in its industrial
employments, for the camphene is con-
verted entirely or in greater part into
camphor, either right-hand camphor, or
a product optically inactive, according
to the origin of the oil of turpentine made
use of. .
In the electrolytic oxidation of the
camphene, instead of using acidulated
water, whatever is capable of furnishing,
under the influence of the electric cur-
rent, the oxygen necessary for the reac-
tion, such as oxygenized water, barium
bioxide, and the permanganates, may be
employed.
Plastic and Elastic Composition. —
Formaldehyde has the property, as known,
of removing from gelatin its solu-
bility and its fusibility, but it has also
another property, prejudicial in certain
applications, of rendering the composi-
tion hard and friable. In order to
remedy this prejudicial action M. De-
borda adds to the gelatin treated by
means of formaldehyde, oil of turpen-
tine, or a mixture of oil of turpentine and
German turpentine or Venice turpentine.
The addition removes from the composi-
tion its friability and hardness, imparting
to it great softness and elasticity. The
effect is accomplished by a slight pro-
portion, 5 to 10 per cent.
Production of Substances Resembling
Celluloid. — Most of the substitutes for
camphor in the preparation of celluloid
are attended with inconveniences limiting
their employment and sometimes caus-
ing their rejection. Thus, in one case
the celluloid does not allow of the prepa-
ration of transparent bodies; in another
it occasions too much softness in the
products manufactured; and in still an-
other it does not allow of pressing, fold-
ing, or other operations, because the mass
is too brittle; in still others combinations
are produced which in time are affected
unfavorably by the coloring substances
employed.
Callenberg has found that the haloge-
nous derivatives of etherized oils, prin-
cipally oil of turpentine, and especially
the solid chloride of turpentine, which is
of a snowy and brilliant white, and of
agreeable odor, are suitable for yielding,
either alone or mixed with camphor or
one of its substitutes, and combined by
ordinary means with nitrated cellulose,
or other ethers of cellulose, treated with
acetic ether, a celluloidic product, which,
it is said, is not inferior to ordinary cellu-
loid and has the advantage of reduced
cost.
Elastic Substitute for Celluloid.—
Acetic cellulose, like nitro-cellulose, can
be converted into an elastic corneous
compound. The substances particu-
larly suitable for the operation are or-
ganic substances containing one or more
hydroxy, aldehydic, amide, or ketonic
groups, as well as the acid amides. Prob-
ably a bond is formed when these com-
binations act on the acetate of cellulose,
but the bond cannot well be defined,
considering the complex nature of the
molecule of cellulose. According to the
mode of preparation, the substances
obtained form a hard mass, more or less
flexible. In the soft state, copies of en-
grayed designs can be reproduced in
their finest details. When hardened,
they can be cut and polished. In cer-
tain respects they resemble celluloid,
without its inflammability, and they can
be employed in the same manner. They
can be produced by the following meth-
ods— the Lederer process:
I. — Melt together 1 part of acetate of
cellulose and H parts of phenol at about
the temperature of 104° to 122° F. When
a clear solution is obtained place the
mass of reaction on plates of glass or
metal slightly heated and allow it to cool
gradually. After a rest of several days
the mass, which at the outset is similar
to caoutchouc, is hard and forms flexible
plates, which can be worked like cellu-
loid.
II. — Compress an intimate mixture of
equal parts of acetic cellulose and hy-
drate of chloride or of aniline, at a tem-
perature of 122° to 140° F., and proceed
as in the previous case.
In the same way a ketone may be em-
ployed, as acetophenone, or an acid
amide, as acetamide.
III. — A transparent, celluloid-like sub-
stance which is useful for the produc-
CELLULOID
159
tion of plates, tubes, and other articles,
but especially as an underlay for sensitive
films in photography, is produced by
dissolving 1.8 parts, by weight, of nitro-
cellulose in 16 parts of glacial acetic acid,
with heating and stirring and addition
of 5 parts of gelatin. After this has
swelled up, add 7.5 parts, by weight, of
alcohol (96 per cent), stirring constantly.
The syrupy product may be pressed into
molds or poured, after further dilution
with the said solvents in the stated pro-
portion, upon glass plates to form thin
layers. The dried articles are well
washed with water, which may contain a
trace of soda lye, and dried again. Pho-
tographic foundations produced in this
manner do not change, nor attack the
layers sensitive to light, nor do they be-
come electric, and in developing they
remain flat.
IV. — Viscose is the name of a new
product of the class of substances like
celluloid, pegamoid, etc., substances hav-
ing most varied and valuable appli-
cations. It is obtained directly from
cellulose by mascerating this substance
in a 1 per cent dilution of hydrochloric
acid. The maceration is allowed to con-
tinue for several hours, and at its close
the liquid is decanted and the residue
is pressed off and washed thoroughly.
The mass (of which we will suppose
there is 100 grams) is then treated with a
20 per cent aqueous solution of sodium
hydrate, which dissolves it. The solu-
tion is allowed to stand for 3 days in a
tightly closed vessel; 100 grams carbon
disulphide are then added, the vessel
closed and allowed to stand for 12 hours
longer, when it is ready for purification.
Viscose thus formed is soluble in water,
cold or tepid, and yields a solution of a
pale brownish color, from which it is
precipitated by alcohol and sodium
chloride, which purifies it, but at the
expense of much of its solubility. A so-
lution of the precipitated article is color-
less, or of a slightly pale yellow. Under
the action of heat, long continued, vis-
cose is decomposed, yielding cellulose,
caustic soda, and carbon disulphide.
See also Casein for Celluloid Substi-
tutes.
Celluloid of Reduced Inflammability.
— I. — A practicable method consists in
incorporating silica, which does not
harm the essential properties of the cel-
luloid. The material is divided by the
usual methods, and dissolved by means
of the usual solvents, to which silica has
been added, either in the state of amylic,
ethylic, or methylic silicate, or in the state
of any ether derivative of silicic acid.
The suitable proportions vary according
to the degree of inflammability desired,
and according to the proportion of silica
in the ether derivative employed; but
sufficient freedom from inflammability
for practical purposes is attained by the
following proportions: Fifty-five to 65
parts in volume of the solvent of the
celluloid, and 35 to 45 parts of the de-
rivative of silicic acid.
When the ether derivative is in the
solid form, such, for instance, as ethyl
disilicate, it is brought to the liquid state
by means of any of the solvents. The
union of the solvent and of the derivative
is accomplished by mixing the two
liquids and shaking out the air as
much as possible. The incorporation
of this mixture with the celluloid, pre-
viously divided or reduced to the state of
chips, is effected by pouring the mixture
on the chips, or inversely, shaking or stir-
ring as free from the air as possible. The
usual methods are employed for the des-
iccation of the mass. A good result
is obtained by drying very slowly, pref-
erably at a temperature not above 10°
C. (50° F.). The resulting residue is a
new product scarcely distinguished from
ordinary celluloid, except that the in-
herent inflammability . is considerably
reduced. It is not important to employ
any individual silicate or derivative. A
mixture of the silicates or derivatives
mentioned will accomplish the same
results.
II. — Any ignited body is extinguished
in a gaseous medium which is unsuitable
for combustion; the attempt has there-
fore been made to find products capable
of producing an uninflammable gas; and
products have been selected that yield
chlorine, and others producing bromine;
it is also necessary that these bodies
should be soluble in a solvent of cellu-
loid; therefore, among chlorated prod-
ucts, ferric chloride has been taken; this
is soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture.
This is the process: An ether-alcohol
solution of celluloid is made; then an
ether-alcohol solution of ferric perchlor-
ide. The two solutions are mingled, and
a clear, syrupy liquid of yellow color,
yielding no precipitate, is obtained. The
liquid is poured into a cup or any suit-
able vessel; it is left for spontaneous
evaporation, and a substance of shell-
color is produced, which, after washing
and drying, effects the desired result.
The celluloid thus treated loses none of
its properties in pliability and trans-
parency, and is not only uninflammable,
but also incombustible.
160
CELLULOID
Of bromated compounds, calcium
bromide has been selected, which pro-
duces nearly the same result; the product
obtained fuses in the flame; outside, it is
extinguished, without the power of igni-
tion.
It may be objected that ferric perchlor-
ide and calcium bromide, being soluble
in water, may present to the celluloid a
surface capable of being affected by
moist air; but the mass of celluloid, not
being liable to penetration by water, fixes
the chlorinated or brominated product.
Still, as the celluloid undergoes a slight
decomposition, on exposure to the light,
allowing small quantities of camphor to
evaporate, the surface of the perchlorin-
ated celluloid may be fixed by immer-
sion in albuminous water, after previous
treatment with a solution of oxalic acid,
if a light yellow product is desired.
For preventing the calcium bromide
from eventually oozing on the surface of
the celluloid, by reason of its d"eliques-
cence, it may be fixed by immersing the
celluloid in water acidulated with sul-
phuric acid. For industrial products,
such as toilet articles, celluloid with fer-
ric perchloride may be employed.
Another method of preparing an un-
inflammable celluloid, based on the prin-
ciple above mentioned, consists in mix-
ing bromide of camphor with cotton
powder, adding castor oil to soften the
product, in order that it may be less
brittle. The latter product is not in-
combustible, but it is uninflammable,
and its facility of preparation reduces at
least one-half the apparatus ordinarily
made use of in the manufacture of cellu-
loid. The manufacture of this product
is not at all dangerous, for the camphor
bromide is strictly uninflammable, and
may be melted without any danger of
dissolving the gun cotton.
III. — Dissolve 25 parts of ordinary
celluloidin in 250 parts of acetone and
add a solution of 50 parts of magnesium
chloride in 150 parts of alcohol, until a
paste results, which occurs with a pro-
portion of about 100 parts of the former
solution to 20 parts of the latter solution.
This paste is carefully mixed and worked
through, then dried, and gives an abso-
lutely incombustible material.
IV. — Glass-like plates which are im-
pervious to acids, salts, and alkalies,
flexible, odorless, and infrangible, and
still possess a transparency similar to
ordinary glass, are said to be obtained
by dissolving 4 to 8 per cent of collodion
wool (soluble pyroxylin) in 1 per cent of
ether or alcohol and mixing the solution
with 2 to 4 per cent of castor oil, or a
similar non-resinifying oil, and with 4 to
6 per cent of Canada balsam. The in-
flammability of these plates is claimed to
be much less than with others of collo-
dion, and may be almost entirely obviat-
ed by admixture of magnesium chloride.
An addition of zinc white produces the
appearance of ivory.
Solvents for Celluloid.— Celluloid dis-
solves in acetone, sulphuric ether, alco-
hol, oil of turpentine, benzine, amyl
acetate, etc., alone, or in various com-
binations of these agents. The follow-
ing are some proportions for solutions
of celluloid:
I.— Celluloid 5 parts
Amyl acetate 10 parts
Acetone 16 parts
Sulphuric ether .... 16 parts
II.— Celluloid 10 parts
Sulphuric ether .... 30 parts
Acetone 30 parts
Amyl acetate7. 30 parts
Camphor 3 parts
III.— Celluloid 5 parts
Alcohol 50 parts
Camphor 5 parts
IV.— Celluloid 5 parts
Amyl acetate 50 parts
V.— Celluloid 5 parts
Amyl acetate 25 parts
Acetone 25 parts
Softening and Cementing Celluloid. —
If celluloid is to be warmed only suffi-
ciently to be able to bend it, a bath in
boiling water will answer. In steam at
120° C. (248° F.), however, it becomes
so soft that it may be easily kneaded like
dough, so that one may even imbed in it
metal, wood, or any similar material. If
it be intended to soften it to solubility,
the celluloid must then be scraped fine
and macerated in 90 per cent alcohol,
whereupon it takes on the character of
cement and may be used to join broken
pieces of celluloid together. Solutions
of celluloid may be prepared: 1. With
5 parts, by weight, of celluloid in 16
parts, by weight, each of amyl acetate,
acetone, and sulphuric ether. 2. With
10 parts, by weight, of celluloid in 30
parts, by weight, each of sulphuric ether,
acetone, amyl acetate, and 4 parts, by
weight, camphor. 3. With 5 parts, by
weight, celluloid in 50 parts, by weight,
alcohol and 5 parts, by weight, camphor.
4. With 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in
50 parts, by weight, amyl acetate. 5.
Witn 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in 25
parts, by weight, amyl acetate and 25
parts, by weight, acetone.
CEMENTS
161
It is often desirable to soften celluloid
so that it will not break when hammered.
Dipping it in water warmed to 40° C.
(104° F.) will suffice for this.
Mending Celluloid. — Celluloid dishes
which show cracks are easily repaired
by brushing the surface repeatedly with
alcohol, 3 parts, and ether, 4 parts, until
the mass turns soft and can be readily
squeezed together. The pressure must
be maintained for about one day. By
putting only 1 part of ether in 3 parts of
alcohol and adding a little shellac, a ce-
ment for celluloid is obtained, which,
applied warm, produces quicker results.
Another very useful gluing agent for cel-
luloid receptacles is concentrated acetic
acid. The celluloid fragments dabbed
with it stick together almost instantane-
ously.
See also Adhesives for Methods of
Mending Celluloid.
Printing on Celluloid. — Printing on
celluloid may be done in the usual way.
Make ready the form so as to be perfectly
level on the impression — that is, uniform
to impressional touch on the face. The
tympan should be hard. Bring up the
form squarely, allowing for about a 3- or
4-sheet cardboard to be withdrawn from
the tympan when about to proceed with
printing on the celluloid; this is to allow
for the thickness of the sheet of celluloid.
Use live but dry and well-seasoned roll-
ers. Special inks of different colors are
made for this kind of press work; in
black a good card-job quality will be
found about right, if a few drops of
copal varnish- are mixed with the ink
before beginning to print.
Colored Celluloid.—
Black: First dip into pure water, then
into a solution of nitrate of silver; let dry
in the light.
Yellow: First immerse in a solution
of nitrate of lead, then in a concentrated
solution of chromate of potash.
Brown: Dip into a solution of per-
manganate of potash made strongly
alkaline by the addition of soda.
Blue: Dip into a solution of indigo
neutralized by the addition of soda.
Red: First dip into a diluted bath of
nitric acid; then into an ammoniacal
solution of carmine.
Green: Dip into a solution of verdi-
gris.
Aniline colors may also be employed
but they are less permanent.
Bleaching Celluloid. —If the celluloid
has become discolored throughout, its
whiteness can hardly be restored, but if
merely superficially discolored, wipe with
a woolen rag wet with absolute alcohol
and ether mixed in equal proportions.
This dissolves and removes a minute
superficial layer and lays bare a new
surface. To restore the polish rub
briskly first with a woolen cloth and fin-
ish with silk or fine chamois. A little
jeweler's rouge or putzpomade greatly
facilitates matters. Ink marks may be
removed in the same manner. Printer's
ink may be removed from celluloid by
rubbing first with oil of turpentine and
afterwards with alcohol and ether.
Process of Impregnating Fabrics with
Celluloid. — The fabric is first saturated
with a dilute celluloid solution of the
consistency of olive oil, which solution
penetrates deeply into the tissue; dry
quickly in a heating chamber and satu-
rate with a more concentrated celluloid
solution, about as viscous as molasses.
If oil be added to the celluloid solution,
the quantity should be small in the first
solution, e. g., 1 to 2 per cent, in the
following ones 5 to 8 per cent, while the
outer layer contains very little or no oil.
A fabric impregnated in this manner
possesses a very flexible surface, because
the outer layer may be very thin, while
the interior consists of many flexible
fibers surrounded by celluloid.
CELLULOID CEMENTS AND GLUES :
See Adhesives.
CELLULOID LACQUER:
See Lacquer.
CELLULOID PUTTY:
See Cements.
Cements
(See also Putties.)
For Adhesive Cements intended for
repairing broken articles, see Adhe-
sives.
Putty for Celluloid.— To fasten cellu-
loid to wood, tin, etc., use a compound of
2 parts shellac, 3 parts spirit of cam-
phor, and 4 parts strong alcohol.
Plumbers' Cement. — A plumbers' ce-
ment consists of 1 part black rosin,
melted, and 2 parts of brickdust, thor-
oughly powdered and dried.
Cement for Steam and Water Pipes. —
A cement for pipe joints is made as fol-
lows: Ten pounds fine yellow ocher; 4
162
CEMENTS
pounds ground litharge; 4 pounds whit-
ing, and £ pound of hemp, cut up fine.
Mix together thoroughly with linseed oil
to about the consistency of putty.
Gutter Cement. — Stir sand and fine
lime into boiled paint skins while hot and
thick. Use hot.
Cement for Pipe Joints. — A good ce-
ment for making tight joints in pumps,
pipes, etc., is made of a mixture of 15
parts of slaked lime, 30 parts of graphite,
and 40 parts of barium sulphate. The in-
gredients are powdered, well mixed to-
gether, and stirred up with 15 parts of
boiled oil. A stiffer preparation can be
made by increasing the proportions of
graphite and barium sulphate to 30 and
40 parts respectively, and omitting the
lime. Another cement for the same
purpose consists of 15 parts of chalk
and 50 of graphite, ground, washed,
mixed, and reground to fine powder. To
this mixture is added 20 parts of ground
litharge, and the whole mixed to a stiff
paste with about 15 parts of boiled oil.
This last preparation possesses the ad-
vantage of remaining plastic for a long
time when stored in a cool place. Finally,
a good and simple mixture for tightening
screw connections is made from powdered
shellac dissolved in 10 per cent ammonia.
The mucinous mass is painted over the
screw threads, after the latter have been
thoroughly cleaned, and the fitting is
screwed home. The ammonia soon
volatilizes, leaving behind a mass which
hardens quickly, makes a tight joint,
and is impervious to hot and cold water.
Protection for Cement Work. — A
coating of soluble glass will impart to
cement surfaces exposed to ammonia
not only a protective covering, but also
increased solidness.
Cemented surfaces can be protected
from the action of the weather by re-
peated coats of a green vitriol solution
consisting of 1 part of green vitriol and
3 parts of water. Two coatings of 5
per cent soap water are said to render
the cement waterproof; after drying and
rubbing with a cloth or brush, this coat-
ing will become glossy like oil paint.
This application is especially recom-
mended for sick rooms, since the walls
can be readily cleaned by washing with
soapy water. The coating is rendered
more and more waterproof thereby.
The green vitriol solution is likewise
commendable for application on old and
new plastering, since it produces thereon
waterproof coatings. From old plas-
tering the loose particles have first to be
removed by washing.
Puncture Cement. — A patented prepa-
ration for automatically repairing punc-
tures in bicycle tires consists of glycerine
holding gelatinous silica or aluminum
hydrate in suspension. Three volumes
of glycerine are mixed with 1 volume of
liquid water glass, and an acid is stirred
in. The resulting jelly is diluted with 3
additional volumes of glycerine, and
from 4 to 6 ounces of this fluid are placed
in each tire. In case of puncture, the
internal pressure of the air forces the fluid
into the hole, which it closes.
To Fix Iron in Stone. — Of the quickly
hardening cements, lead and sulphur,
the latter is popularly employed. It can
be rendered still more suitable for pur-
poses of pouring by the admixture of
Portland cement, which is stirred into
the molten sulphur in the ratio of 1 to 3
parts by weight. The strength of the
latter is increased by this addition, since
the formation of so coarse a crystalline
structure as that of solidifying pure sul-
phur is disturbed by the powder added.
White Portland Cement.— Mix togeth-
er feldspar, 40-100 parts, -by weight;
kaolin, 100 parts; limestone, 700 parts;
magnesite, 20-40 parts; and sodium
chloride, 2.5-5 parts, all as pure as
possible, and heat to 1430° to 1500° C.
(2606° to 2732° F.), until the whole has
become sintered together, and forms a
nice, white cement-like mass.
Cement for Closing Cracks in Stoves.
— Make a putty of reduced iron (iron
by hydrogen) and a solution of sodium
or potassium silicate, and force it into
the crack. If the crack be a very nar-
row one, make the iron and silicate into
paste instead of putty. This material
grows firmer and harder the longer the
mended article is used.
Cement for Waterpipe. — I. — Mix to-
gether 11 parts, by weight, Portland
cement; 4 parts, by weight, lead white;
1 part, by weight, litharge; and make to
a paste with boiled oil in which 3 per
cent of its weight of colophony has been
dissolved.
II. — Mix 1 part, by weight, torn-up
wadding; 1 part, by weight, of quicklime,
and 3 parts, by weight, of boiled oil.
This cement must be used as soon as
made.
Cement for Pallet Stones. — Place small
pieces of shellac around the stone when
in position and subject it to heat. Often
the lac spreads unevenly or swells up;
and this, in addition to being unsightly,
is apt to displace the stone. This can
be avoided as follows: The pallets are
CEMENTS
163
held in long sliding tongs. Take a piece
of shellac, heat it and roll it into a cylin-
der between the fingers; again heat the
extremity and draw it out into a fine
thread. This thread will break off, leav-
ing a point at the end of the lac. Now
heat the tongs at a little distance from
the pallets, testing the degree of heat by
touching the tongs with the shellac.
When it melts easily, lightly touch the
two sides of the notch with it; a very
thin layer can thus be spread over them,
and the pallet stone can then be placed
in position and held until cold enough.
The tongs will not lose the heat sud-
denly, so that the stone can easily be
raised or lowered as required. The pro-
jecting particles of cement can be re-
moved by a brass wire filed to an angle
and forming a scraper. To cement a
ruby pin, or the like, one may also use
shellac dissolved in spirit, applied in the
consistency of syrup, and liquefied again
by means of a hot pincette, by seizing
the stone with it.
DENTAL CEMENTS:
Fairthorne's Cement. — Powdered glass,
5 parts; powdered borax, 4 parts; silicic
acid, 8 parts; zinc oxide, 200 parts.
Powder very finely and mix; then tint
with a small quantity of golden pcher or
manganese. The compound, mixed be-
fore use with concentrated syrupy zinc-
chloride solution, soon becomes as hard
as marble and constitutes a very durable
tooth cement.
Huebner's Cement. — Zinc oxide, 500.0
parts; powdered manganese, 1.5 parts;
yellow ocher, powdered, 1.5-4.0 parts;
powdered borax, 10.0 parts; powdered
glass, 100.0 parts.
As a binding liquid it is well to use
acid-free zinc chloride, which can be
prepared by dissolving pure zinc, free
from iron, in concentrated, pure, hydro-
chloric acid, in such a manner that zinc
is always in excess. When no more hy-
drogen is evolved the zinc in excess is
still left in the solution for some time.
The latter is filtered and boiled down to
the consistency of syrup.
Commercial zinc oxide cannot be em-
ployed without previous treatment, be-
cause it is too loose; the denser it is the
better is it adapted for dental cements,
and the harder the latter will be. For
this reason it is well, in order to obtain a
dense product, to stir the commercial
pure zinc oxide into a stiff paste with
water to which 2 per cent of nitric acid
has been added; the paste is dried and
heated for some time at white heat in a
Hessian crucible.
After cooling, the zinc oxide, thus ob-
tained, is very finely powdered and kept
in hermetically sealed vessels, so that
it cannot absorb carbonic acid. The
dental cement prepared with such zinc
oxide turns very hard and solidifies with
the concentrated zinc-chloride solution in
a few minutes.
Phosphate Cement. — Concentrate pure
phosphoric acid till semi-solid, and mix
aluminum phosphate with it by heat-
ing. For use, mix with zinc oxide to
the consistency of putty. The cement
is said to set in 2 minutes.
Zinc Amalgam, or Dentists' Zinc. —
This consists of pure zinc filings com-
bined with twice their weight of mercury,
a gentle heat being employed to render
the union more complete. It is best ap-
plied as soon as made. Its color is gray,
and it is said to be effective and durable.
Sorel's Cement. — Mix zinc oxide with
half its bulk of fine sand, add a solu-
tion of zinc chloride of 1.260 specific
gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly
together in a mortar. The mixture
must be applied at once, as it hardens
very quickly.
Metallic Cement. — Pure tin, with a
small proportion of cadmium and suf-
ficient mercury, forms the most lasting
and, for all practical purposes, the least
objectionable amalgam. Melt 2 parts
of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into in-
gots, and reduce it to filings. Form
those into a fluid amalgam with mercury,
and squeeze out the excess of the latter
through leather. Work up the solid
residue in the hand, and press it into the
tooth. Or melt some beeswax in a pip-
kin, throw in 5 parts of cadmium, and
when melted add 7 or 8 parts of tin in
small pieces. Pour the melted metals
into an iron or wooden box, and shake
them until cold, so as to obtain the alloy
in a powder. This is mixed with 2£ to
3 times its weight of mercury in the palm
of the hand, and used as above described.
CEMENT COLORS:
See Stone.
CEMENT, MORDANT FOR:
See Mordants.
CEMENT, PAINTS FOR:
See Paint.
CEMENT, PROTECTION OF, AGAINST
ACID:
See Acid-Proofing.
164
CERAMICS
CHAIN OF FIRE:
See Pyrotechnics.
CHAINS (WATCH), TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
CHALK FOR TAILORS.
Knead together ordinary pipe clay,
moistened with ultramarine blue for
blue, finely ground ocher for yellow, etc.,
until they are uniformly mixed, roll out
into thin sheets, cut and press into wood-
en or metallic molds, well oiled to pre-
vent sticking, and allow to dry slowly at
ordinary temperature or at a very gentle
heat.
CHAPPED HANDS:
See Cosmetics.
CHARTA SINAPIS :
See Mustard Paper.
CHARTREUSE :
See Wines and Liquors.
Ceramics
GROUND CERAMICS— LAYING OIL
FOR:
See Oil.
Notes for Potters, Glass-, and Brick-
makers. — It is of the highest importance
,in selecting oxides, minerals, etc., for
manufacturing different articles, for
potters' use, to secure pure goods, es-
pecially in the purchase of the following:
Lead, manganese, oxide of zinc, borax,
whiting, oxide of iron, and oxide of
cobalt. The different ingredients com-
E rising any given color or glaze should
e thoroughly mixed before being cal-
cined, otherwise the mass will be of a
streaky or variegated kind. Calcination
requires care, especially in the manu-
facture of enamel colors. Over-firing,
particularly of colors or enamels com-
posed in part of lead, borax, antimony, or
litharge, causes a dullness of shade, or
film, that reduces their value for decora-
tive purposes, where clearness and bril-
liancy are of the first importance.
To arrest the unsightly defect of
"crazing," the following have been the
most successful methods employed, in
the order given:
I. — Flux made of 10 parts tincal; 4
parts oxide of zinc; 1 part soda.
II. — A calcination of 5 parts oxide of
zinc; 1 part pearl ash.
III. — Addition of raw oxide of zinc,
6 pounds to each hundredweight of
glaze.
To glazed brick and tile makers, whose
chief difficulty appears to be the produc-
tion of a slip to suit the contraction of
their clay, and adhere strongly to either
a clay or a burnt brick or tile, the follow-
ing method may be recommended:
Mix together:
Ball clay 10 parts
Cornwall stone 10 parts
China clay 7 parts
Flint 6 ^ parts
To be mixed and lawned one week
before use.
To Cut Pottery.— Pottery or any soft
or even hard stone substance can be cut
without chipping by a disk of soft iron,
the edge of which has been charged with
emery, diamond, or other grinding pow-
der, that can be obtained at any tool
agency. The cutting has to be done
with a liberal supply of water fed con-
tinually to the revolving disk and the
substance to be cut.
BRICK AND TILEMAKERS' GLAZED
BRICKS :
White. — When the brick or tile leaves
the press, with a very soft brush cover the
part to be glazed with No. 1 Slip; after-
wards dip the face in the same mixture.
No. i Slip.—
Same clay as brick . . 9 parts
Flint 1 part
Ball clay 5 parts
China 4 parts
Allow the brick to remain slowly dry-
ing for 8 to 10 hours, then when moist
dip in the white body.
White Body.—
China clay 24 parts
Ball clay 8 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
Flint 4 parts
The brick should now be dried slowly
but thoroughly, and when perfectly dry
dip the face in clean cold water, and im-
mediately afterwards in glaze.
Hard Glaze.—
Feldspar 18 parts
Cornwall stone 3£ parts
Whiting 1 1 parts
Oxide of zinc l| parts
Plaster of Paris f part
CERAMICS
165
Soft Glaze. —
White lead 13 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Plaster of Paris 1 part
Flint glass 13 parts
Cornwall stone 3£ parts
Paris white 1J parts
Where clay is used that will stand a
very high fire, the white lead and glass
may be left out. A wire brush should
now be used to remove all superfluous
glaze, etc., from the sides and ends of the
brick, which is then ready for the kiln.
In placing, set the bricks face to face,
about an inch space being left between
the two glazed faces. All the mixtures,
after being mixed with water to the con-
sistency of cream, must be passed 2 or
3 times through a very fine lawn. The
kiln must not be opened till perfectly
cold.
Process for Colored Glazes. — Use color,
1 part, to white body, 7 parts. Use
color, 1 part, to glaze, 9 parts.
Preparation of Colors. — The specified
ingredients should all be obtained finely
ground, and after being mixed in the
proportions given should, in a saggar or
some clay vessel, be fired in the brick
kiln and afterwards ground for use. In
firing the ingredients the highest heat
attainable is necessary.
Turquoise. —
Oxide of zinc 8 parts
Oxide of cobalt 1 J parts
Grass Green. —
Oxide of chrome 6 parts
Flint 1 part
Oxide of copper | part
Royal Blue.—
Pure alumina 20 parts
Oxide of zinc 8 parts
Oxide of cobalt 4 parts
Mazarine Blue. —
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts
i'aris white 9 parts
Sulphate barytes 1 part
Red Brown. —
Oxide of zinc 40 parts
Crocus of martis 6 parts
Oxide of chrome 6 parts
Red lead 5 parts
Boracic acid 5 parts
Red oxide of iron .... 1 part
Orange. —
Pure alumina 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Bichromate of potash. 1 part
Iron scale \ part
Claret Brown. —
Bichromate of potash.
Flint
Oxide of zinc
Iron scale
Blue Green. —
Oxide of chrome
Flint
Oxide of cobalt. .
Sky Blue. —
Flint
Oxide of zinc
Cobalt
Phosphate soda
Chrome Green. —
Oxide of chrome. . . .
Oxide of copper
Carbonate of cobalt .
Oxide of cobalt
Olive.—
Oxide of chrome. . . .
Oxide of zinc
Flint ..'.
Oxide of cobalt
Blood Red.—
Oxide of zinc
Crocus martis
Oxide of chrome. . . .
Litharge
Borax
Red oxide of iron. . ..
Black.—
Chromate of iron. . . .
Oxide of nickel
Oxide of tin
Oxide of cobalt
Imperial Blue. —
Oxide of cobalt
Black color
Paris white
Flint
Carbonate of soda . .
Mahogany. —
Chromate of iron. . . .
Oxide of manganese.
Oxide of zinc
Oxide of tin
Crocus martis . .
Gordon Green. —
Oxide of chrome
Paris white
Bichromate of potash.
Oxide of cobalt
Violet.—
Oxide of cobalt
Oxide of manganese. .
Oxide of zinc,
Cornwall stone
2 parts
2 parts
1 part
1 part
6 parts
2 parts
f part
9 parts
13 parts
2 1 parts
1 part
3 parts
1 part
1 part
2 parts
3 parts
2 parts
5 parts
1 part
30 parts
7 parts
7 parts
5 parts
5 parts
2 parts
24 parts
2 parts
2 parts
5 parts
10 parts
1£ parts
7£ parts
2 1 parts
1 part
30 parts
20 parts
12 parts
4 parts
2 parts
12 parts
8 parts
4^ parts
i part
2$ parts
4 parts
8 parts
8 parts
166
CERAMICS
Lavender. —
Calcined oxide of zinc 5 parts
Carbonate of cobalt . . f part
Oxide of nickel J part
Paris white 1 part
Brown. —
Manganese 4 parts
Oxide of chrome 2 parts
Oxide of zinc 4 parts
Sulphate barytes 2 parts
Dove.—
Oxide of nickel 7 parts
Oxide of cobalt 2 parts
Oxide of chrome 1 part
Oxide of flint 18 parts
Paris white 3 parts
Yellow Green. —
Flint 6 parts
Paris white 4 parts
Bichromate of potash. 4 i parts
Red lead 2 parts
Fluorspar 2 parts
Plaster of Paris li parts
Oxide of copper £ part
BODIES REQUIRING NO STAIN:
Ivory. —
Cane marl 16 parts
Ball clay 12 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
China clay 6 parts
Flint 4 parts
Cream. —
Ball clay 22 parts
China clay 5i parts
Flint 5" parts
Feldspar 3J parts
Cane marl 12 parts
Black.—
Ball clay 120 parts
Ground ocher 120 parts
Ground manganese . 35 parts
Buff.—
Ball clay 12 parts
China clay 10 parts
Feldspar 8 parts
Bull fire clay 16 parts
Yellow ocher 3 parts
Drab.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Stone 7 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Brown. —
Red marl 50 parts
China clay 7 parts
Ground manganese . . 6 parts
Feldspar 3 parts
In making mazarine blue glazed bricks
use the white body and stain the glaze
only.
Mazarine blue 1 part
Glaze 7 parts
For royal blue use 1 part stain to 6
parts white body, and glaze unstained.
Blood-Red Stain. — Numerous brick
manufacturers possess beds of clay from
which good and sound bricks or tiles
can be made, the only drawback being
that the clay does not burn a good color.
In many cases this arises from the fact
that the clay contains more or less sul-
phur or other impurity, which spoils the
external appearance of the finished
article. The following stain will con-
vert clay of any color into a rich, deep
red, mixed in proportions of stain, 1
part, to clay, 60 parts.
Stain.—
Crocus martis 20 parts
Yellow ocher 4 parts
Sulphate of iron 10 parts
Red oxide of iron 2 parts
A still cheaper method is to put a slip
or external coating upon the goods.
The slip being quite opaque, effectively
hides the natural color of the brick or
tile upon which it may be used.
The process is to mix:
Blood-red stain 1 part
Good red clay 6 parts
Add water until the mixture becomes
about the consistency of. cream, then
with a sponge force the liquid two or three
times through a very fine brass wire lawn,
No. 80, and dip the goods in the liquid
as soon as they are pressed or molded.
Blue Paviors. — Blue paving bricks
may be produced with almost any kind
of clay that will stand a fair amount of
heat, by adopting the same methods as
in the former case of blood-red bricks,
that is, the clay may be stained through-
out, or an outside coating may be ap-
plied.
Stain for Blue Paviors. —
Ground ironstone. ... 20 parts
Chromate of iron 5 parts
Manganese 6 parts
Oxide of nickel 1 part
Use 1 part clay and 1 part stain for
coating, and 50 or 60 parts clay and 1
part stain for staining through.
Fire blue paviors very hard.
Buff Terra-Co tta Slip.—
Buff fire clay 16 parts
China clay 6 parts
CERAMICS
167
Yellow ocher 3 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Flint 4 parts
Add water to the materials after mix-
ing well, pass through the fine lawn, and
dip the goods when soft in the liquid.
Transparent Glaze. —
Ground flint glass 4 parts
Ground white lead .... 4 parts
Ground oxide of zinc. \ part
This glaz,e is suitable for bricks or tiles
made of very good red clay, the natural
color of the clay showing through the
glaze. The goods must first be fired
sufficiently hard to make them durable,
afterwards glazed, and fired again. The
glaze being comparatively soft will fuse at
about half the heat required for the first
burning. The glaze may be stained, if
desired, with any of the colors given in
glazed-brick recipes, in the following
proportions: Stain, 1 part; glaze, 1 part.
SPECIAL RECIPES FOR POTTERY
AND BRICK AND TILE WORKS :
Verifiable Bodies.— The following mix-
tures will flux only at a very high heat.
They require no glaze when a proper
heat is attained, and they are admirably
adapted for stoneware glazes.
I. — Cornwall stone. ... 20 parts
Feldspar 12 parts
China clay 3 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Plaster of Paris ... 1 £ parts
II.— Feldspar 30 parts
Flint 9 parts
Stone 8 parts
China clay 3 parts
III. — Feldspar 20 parts
Stone. . . . 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Plaster of Paris ... 1 part
Soda crystals, dis-
solved 1 part
Special Glazes for Bricks or Pottery
at One Burning. — To run these glazes
intense heat is required.
I. — Cornwall stone 40 parts
Flint 7 parts
Paris white 4 parts
Ball clay 15 parts
Oxide of zinc 6 parts
White lead 15 parts
II.— Feldspar 20 parts
Cornwall stone. ... 5 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Flint 3 parts
Lynn sand 1* parts
Sulphate barytes. . . 1 J parts
III. — Feldspar 25 parts
Cornwall stone 6 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
China clay 2 parts
IV. — Cornwall stone 118 parts
Feldspar 40 parts
Paris white 28 parts
Flint 4 parts
V. — Feldspar 16 parts
China clay 4 parts
Stone 4 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Plaster of Paris .... 1 part
VI.— Feldspar 10 parts
Stone 5 parts
Flint 2 parts
Plaster \ part
The following glaze is excellent for
bricks in the biscuit and pottery, which
require an easy firing:
White.—
White lead 20 parts
Stone 9 parts
Flint 9 parts
Borax. 4 parts
Oxide of zinc 2 parts
Feldspar 3 parts
These materials should be procured
finely ground, and after being thoroughly
mixed should be placed in a fire-clay
crucible, and be fired for 5 or 6 hours,
sharply, or until the material runs down
into a liquid, then with a pair of iron
tongs draw the crucible from the kiln
and pour the liquid into a bucket of cold
water, grind the flux to an extremely
fine powder, and spread a coating upon
the plate to be enameled, previously
brushing a little gum thereon. The
plate must then be fired until a sufficient
heat is attained to run or fuse the pow-
der.
POTTERY BODIES AND GLAZES:
Ordinary. —
I. — China clay 2^ parts
Stone 1 1 parts
Bone 3 parts
II. — China clay 5 parts
• Stone 2£ parts
Bone 7 parts
Barytes 3 parts
III. — Chain clay 5 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint \ part
Barytes 8 parts
Superior. —
I. — China clay 35 parts
Cornwall stone 23 parts
Bone 40 parts
Flint 2 parts
168
CERAMICS
II. — China clay 35 parts
Cornwall stone 8 parts
Bone 50 parts
Flint 3 parts
Blue clay 4 parts
III. — China clay 8 parts
Cornwall stone 40 parts
Bone 29 parts
Flint 5 parts
Blue clay 18 parts
IV.— China clay 32 parts
Cornwall stone 23 parts
Bone 34 parts
Flint 6 parts
Blue clay 5 parts
V. — China clay 7 parts
Stone 40 parts
Bone. 28 parts
Flint 5 parts
Blue clay 20 parts
Finest China Bodies. —
I. — China clay 20 parts
Bone 60 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
II.— China clay 30 parts
Bone 40 parts
Feldspar 30 parts
III.— China clay 25 parts
Stone 10 parts
Bone 45 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
IV.— China clay 30 parts
Stone 15 parts
Bone 35 parts
Feldspar 20 parts
Earthenware Bodies. —
I.— Ball clay 13 parts
China clay 9$ parts
Flint 5$ parts
Cornwall stone 4 parts
II.— Ball clay 12$ parts
China clay 8 parts
Flint 5$ parts
Cornwall stone ... 2$ parts
One pint of cobalt
stain to 1 ton of
glaze.
III.— Ball clay 13J parts
China clay 11 parts
Flint 4 parts
Cornwall stone 5 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Stain as required.
IV.— Ball clay 18$ parts
China clay 13$ parts
Flint 8$ parts
Stone 4 parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
V.— Ball clay 15 parts
China clay 12 parts
Flint 6 parts
Stone 4 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
VI. (Parian).—
Stone 11 parts
Feldspar 10 parts
China clay 8 parts
COLORED BODIES :
Ivory Body. —
Ball clay 22 parts
China 5$ parts
Flint 5 parts
Stone 3$ parts
Dark Drab Body.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 10 parts
Cornwall stone 7 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Black Body.—
Ball clay 120 parts
Ocher 120 parts
Manganese 35 parts
Cobalt carbonate. . 2 parts
Grind the three last mentioned ingre-
dients first.
Caledonia Body. —
Yellow clay 32 parts
China clay 10 parts
Flint 4 parts
Brown Body. —
Red clay 50 parts
Common clay 7$ parts
Manganese 1 part
Flint 1 part
Jasper Body.—
Cawk clay 10 parts
Blue clay 10 parts
Bone 5 parts
Flint 2 parts
Cobalt 1 part
Stone Body.—
Stone 48 parts
Blue clay 25 parts
China clay 24 parts
Cobalt ! 10 parts
Egyptian Black. —
Blue clay 235 parts
Calcined ocher. . . . 225 parts
Manganese 45 parts
China clay 15 parts
Ironstone Body. —
Stone 200 parts
Cornwall clay 150 parts
CERAMICS
169
Blue clay 200 parts
Flint 100 parts
Calx 1 part
Cream Body. —
Blue clay 1 £ parts
Brown clay if parts
Black clay 1 part
Cornish clay 1 part
Common ball clay. . \ part
Buff color | part
Light Drab.—
Cane marl 30 parts
Ball clay 24 parts
Feldspar 7 parts
Sage Body. —
Cane marl 15 parts
Ball clay 15 parts
China clay 5 parts
Stained with turquoise stain.
COLORED GLAZES FOR POTTERY
Blue.—
White glaze 100 parts
Oxide of cobalt ... 3 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Flowing blue 3 parts
Enamel blue 3 parts
Grind.
Pink.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 8 parts
Marone pink U. G. 8 parts
Enamel red 3 parts
Grind.
Buff.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Buff color 8 parts
Grind.
Ivory.—
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 8 parts
Enamel amber 8 parts
Yellow underglaze 2 parts
Grind.
Turquoise. —
White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Carbonate of soda. 5 parts
Enamel blue 4 parts
Malachite, 110 4 parts
Grind.
Yellow.—
I.— White glaze 100 parts
Red lead 10 parts
Oxide of uranium , 8 parts
Grind,
II.— Dried flint 5 parts
Cornwall stone 15 parts
Litharge 50 parts
Yellow underglaze. .. 4 parts
Grind.
Green. —
I. — Oxide of copper
Flint of glass
Flint
Red lead
Grind, then take:
Of above
White glaze
Or stronger as required.
II.— Red lead
Stone
Flint
Flint glass
China clay
Calcined oxide of
copper
Oxide of cobalt
Grind only.
8 parts
3 parts
1 part
6 parts
1 part
6 parts
60 parts
24 parts
12 parts
12 parts
3 parts
14 parts
J part
Green Glaze, Best.—
III.— Stone 80 parts
Flint 8 parts
Soda crystals 4 parts
Borax 3£ parts
Niter 2 parts
Whiting 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt \ part
Glost fire, then take:
Above frit 60 parts
Red lead 57 parts
Calcined oxide of
copper 5| parts
Black.—
Red lead 24 parts
Raddle 4 parts
Manganese 4 parts
Flint 2 parts
Oxide of cobalt 2 parts
Carbonate of cobalt. 2 parts
Glost fire.
WHITE GLAZES:
China.— Frit:
I. — Stone 6 parts
Niter 2 parts
Borax 12 parts
Flint 4 parts
Pearl ash 2 parts
To mill:
Frit 24 parts
Stone 15^ parts
Flint 6| parts
White lead 31 parts
170
CERAMICS
II.— Frit:
Stone 24 parts
Borax 53 parts
Lynn sand 40 parts
Feldspar 32 parts
Paris white 16 parts
To mill:
Frit 90 parts
Stone 30 parts
White lead 90 parts
Flint 4 parts
Glass 2 parts
III.— Frit:
Stone 50 parts
Borax 40 parts
Flint 30 parts
Flint glass 30 parts
Pearl barytes 10 parts
To mill:
Frit 160 parts
Red lead 30 parts
Enamel blue £ part
Flint glass 2 parts
IV.— Frit:
Borax 100 parts
China clay 55 parts
Whiting 60 parts
Feldspar 75 parts
To mill:
Frit 200 parts
China clay 16 parts
White clay 3* parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 2 parts
V.— Frit:
Stone 40 parts
Flint 25 parts
Niter 10 parts
Borax 20 parts
White lead 10 parts
Flint glass 40 parts
To mill:
Frit 145 parts
Stone 56 parts
Borax 16 parts
Flint 15 parts
Red lead 60 parts
Flint glass 8 parts
Earthenware. — Frit:
L— Flint 108 parts
China clay 45 parts
Paris white 60 parts
Borax 80 parts
Soda crystals 30 parts
To mill:
Frit 270 parts
Flint 20 parts
Paris white 15 parts
Stone 80 parts
White lead 65 parts
II.— Frit:
Flint 62 parts
China clay 30 parts
Paris white 38 parts
Boracic acid 48 parts
Soda crystals 26 parts
To mill:
Frit 230 parts
Stone 160 parts
Flint 60 parts
Lead 120 parts
III.— Frit:
Stone 56 parts
Paris white 55 parts
Flint 60 parts
China clay 20 parts
Borax 120 parts
Soda crystals 15 parts
To mill:
Frit... 212 parts
Stone 130 parts
Flint 50 parts
Lead 110 parts
Stain as required.
IV.— Frit:
Stone 100 parts
Flint 44 parts
Paris white 46 parts
Borax 70 parts
Niter 10 parts
To mill:
Frit 200 parts
Stone 60 parts
Lead 80 parts
Pearl White Glaze.— Frit:
Flint 50 parts
Stone 100 parts
Paris white 20 parts
Borax 60 parts
Soda crystals 20 parts
To mill:
Frit 178 pounds
Lead 55 pounds
Stain 3 ounces
Opaque Glaze. — Frit:
Borax 74 parts
Stone 94 parts
Flint 30 parts
China clay 22 parts
Pearl ash 5| parts
To mill:
Frit 175 parts
Lead 46 parts
CERAMICS
171
Flint 10
Oxide of tin 12
Flint glass 12
Glaze for Granite. — Frit:
I.— Stone 100
Flint 80
China clay 30
Paris white . 30
Feldspar 40
Soda crystals 40
Borax 80
To mill:
Frit... 360
Flint 50
Stone 50
Lead 80
II.— Frit:
Borax 100
Stone.. 50
Flint
Paris white
China clay
To mill:
Frit
Stone
Flint
Lead..
50
40
20
210
104
64
95
Raw Glazes. — White:
L— White lead 160
Borax 32
Stone. 48
Flint 52
Stain with blue and grind.
II.— White lead 80
Litharge.. 60
Boracic acid 40
Stone 45
Flint 50
Treat as foregoing.
HI.— White lead 100
Borax 4
Flint 11
Cornwall stone. ... 50
IV.— Red lead 80
Litharge 60
Tincal 40
Stone 40
Flint 52
ROCKINGHAM GLAZES.
I.— Litharge. 50
Stone 7£
Red marl 3
Oxide of manganese 5
Red oxide of iron ... 1
II.— White lead 30
Stone 3
Flint 9
Red marl 3
Manganese 5
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
part
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
III.— Red lead 20 parts
Stone 3 parts
Flint 2 parts
China clay 2 parts
Manganese 3 parts
Red oxide of iron. . . 1 part
Stoneware Bodies. —
Ball clay 14 parts
China clay 10 parts
Stone 8 parts
Ball clay : . 8 parts
China clay 5 parts
Flint 3 parts
Stone 4 parts
Ball clay 14 parts
China clay 11 parts
Flint 4 parts
Stone 5 parts
Feldspar 4 parts
Cane marl 16 parts
China clay 10 parts
Stone 9 parts
Flint 5 parts
Glazes. — Hard glaze:
Stone 10 parts
Flint 5 parts
Whiting 1£ parts
Red lead 10 parts
Hard glaze:
Feldspar 25 parts
Flint 5 parts
Red lead 15 parts
Plaster 1 part
Softer:
White lead 13 parts
Flint glass 10 parts
Feldspar 18 parts
Stone 3 parts
Whiting 1* parts
Best:
Feldspar
Flint glass
White lead 14 parts
.... 20 parts
14 parts
Stone
3 parts
Oxide of zinc 3 parts
Whiting 1* parts
Plaster 1 part
Rockingham Bodies. —
Ball clay 20 parts
China clay 13 parts
Flint 7 parts
Stone 1 part
Cane marl 22 parts
China clay 15 parts
Flint 8 parts
Feldspar 1 part
CERAMICS
Glazes. —
I. —Red lead 60 parts
Stone 8 parts
Red clay 3 parts
Best manganese. . . 5 parts
II.— White lead 60 parts
Feldspar 6 parts
Flint 16 parts
Red clay 6 parts
Manganese 12 parts
III.— Red lead 100 parts
Stone 15 parts
Flint 10 parts
China clay 10 parts
Manganese '. . 40 parts
Crocus martis 2 parts
IV.— Litharge 100 parts
Feldspar 14 parts
China clay 20 parts
Manganese 40 parts
Oxide of iron 2 parts
Jet. — Procure some first-class red marl,
add water, and, by passing through a fine
lawn, make it into a slip, and dip the
ware therein.
When fired use the following:
Glaze.—
Stone 60 parts
Flint 30 parts
Paris white 7| parts
Red lead 140 parts
One part mazarine -blue stain to 10
parts glaze.
Mazarine Blue Stain. —
Oxide of cobalt 10 parts
Paris white 9 parts
Sulphate barytes 1 part
Calcine.
Another Process Body.
Ball clay
China clay
Flint clay
Stone clay
Black stain . .
Glaze.—
Litharge.
Paris white
Flint
Stone
Black stain
Black Stain.—
Chromate of iron . . .
Oxide of nickel
Oxide of tin
Carbonate of cobalt.
Oxide of manganese .
Calcine and grind.
16 parts
12 parts
9 parts
6 parts
7 parts
70 parts
3 parts
12 parts
30 parts
20 parts
12 parts
2 parts
2 parts
5 parts
2 parts
Blue Stains. —
I. — Oxide of cobalt. . . ,
Oxide of zinc
Stone
Fire this very hard.
II.— Zinc
Flint
China clay
Oxide of cobalt. . .
Hard fire.
III.— Whiting
Flint
Oxide of cobalt
Glost fire.
Turquoise Stain. —
Prepared cobalt . .
Oxide of zinc
China clay
Carbonate of soda
Hard fire.
2^ parts
7 1 parts
7^ parts
6 pounds
4 pounds
4 pounds
5 ounces
3f parts
3f parts
2J parts
It parts
6 parts
6 parts
1 part
MATERIALS:
Tin Ash. —
Old lead 4 parts
Grain tin 2 parts
Melt in an iron ladle, and pour out in
water, then spread on a dish, and calcine
in glost oven with plenty of air.
Oxide of Tin. —
Granulated tin 5 pounds
Niter \ pound
Put on saucers and fire in glost oven.
Oxide of Chrome is made by mixing
powdered bichromate of potash with
sulphur as follows:
Potash 6 parts
Flowers of sulphur. . 1 part
Put in saggar, inside kiln, so that
fumes are carried away, and place 4 or
5 pieces of red-hot iron on the top so as
to ignite it. Leave about 12 hours, then
pound very fine, and put in saggar again.
Calcine in hard place of biscuit oven.
Wash this until the water is quite clear,
and dry for use.
Production of Luster Colors on Por-
celain and Glazed Pottery.— The luster
colors are readily decomposed by acids
and atmospheric influences, because
they do not contain, in consequence of
the low baking temperature, enough
silicic acid to form resistive compounds.
In order to attain this, G. Alefeld has
patented a process according to which
such compounds are added to the luster
preparations as leave behind after the
burning an acid which transforms the
luster preparation into more resisting
CERAMICS
173
compounds. In this connection the ad-
mixture of such bodies has been found
advantageous, as they form phosphides
with the metallic oxides of the lusters
after the burning. These phosphides
are especially fitted for the production of
saturated resisting compounds, not only
on account of their insolubility in water,
but also on account of their colorings.
Similarly titanic-, molybdic, tungstic, and
vanadic compounds may be produced.
The metallic phosphates produced by
the burning give a luster coating which,
as regards gloss, is not inferior to the non-
saturated metallic oxides, while it mate-
rially excels them in power of resistance.
Since the lusters to be applied are used
dissolved in essential oils, it is necessary
to make the admixture of phosphoric
substance also in a form soluble in essen-
tial oils. For the production of this
admixture the respective chlorides, pre-
eminently phosphoric chloride, are suit-
able. They are mixed with oil of lav-
ender in the ratio of 1 to 5, and the
resulting reaction product is added to the
commercial metallic oxide luster, singly
or in conjunction with precious metal
preparations (glossy gold, silver, plati-
num, etc.) in the approximate propor-
tion of 5 to 1. Then proceed as usual.
Instead of the chlorides, nitrates and
acetates, as. well as any readily destruc-
tible organic compounds, may also be
employed, which are entered into fusing
rosin or rosinous liquids.
Metallic Luster on Pottery. — Accord-
ing to a process patented in Germany, a
mixture is prepared from various natural
or artificial varieties of ocher, to which
25-50 per cent of finely powdered more
or less metalliferous or sulphurous coal is
added. The mass treated in this man-
ner is brought together in saggars with
finely divided organic substances, such
as sawdust, shavings, wood-wool, cut
straw, etc., and subjected to feeble red
heat. After the heating the material is
taken put. The glazings now exhibit
that thin but stable metallic color which
is governed by the substances used.
Besides coal, salts and oxides of silver,
cobalt, cadmium, chrome iron, nickel,
manganese, copper, or zinc may be em-
ployed. The color-giving layer is re-
moved by washing or brushing, while
the desired color is burned in and re-
mains. In this manner handsome shades
can be produced.
Metallic Glazes on Enamels. — The
formulas used by the Arabs and their
Italian successors are partly disclosed in
manuscripts in the British and South
Kensington Museums; two are given
below:
Arab Italian
Copper sulphide 26 . 87 24 . 74
Silver sulphide 1.15 1.03
Mercury sulphide 24 . 74
Red ocher 71.98 49.49
These were ground with vinegar and
applied with the brush to the already
baked enamel. A great variety of iri-
descent and metallic tones can be ob-
tained by one or the other, or a mixture
of the following formulas:
I II III IV V VI
Copper carbonate. . 30 . . . . 28 . . 95
Copper oxalate . 5 . .
Copper sulphide 20
Silver carbonate 3 .. 2 1 5
Bismuth subnitrate. .. 12 .. .. 10 ..
Stannous oxide 25
Red ocher 70 85 55 70 84 .!
Silver chloride and yellow ocher may
be respectively substituted for silver car-
bonate and red ocher. The ingredients,
ground with a little gum tragacanth and
water, are applied with a brush to enam-
els melting about 1814° F., and are fur-
naced at 1202° F. in a reducing atmos-
phere. After cooling the ferruginous
deposit is rubbed off, and the colors thus
brought out.
Sulphur, free or combined, is not nec-
essary, cinnabar has no action, ocher
may be dispensed with, and any organic
gummy matter may be used instead of
vinegar, and broom is not needed in the
furnace. The intensity and tone of the
iridescence depend on the duration of
the reduction, and the nature of the
enamel. Enamels containing a coloring
base— copper, iron, antimony, nickel —
especially in presence of tin, give the
best results. v
To Toughen China.— To toughen
china or glass place the new article in
cold water, bring to boil gradually,
boil for 4 hours, and leave standing in
the water till cool. Glass or china
toughened in this way will never crack
with hot water.
How to Tell Pottery and Porcelain. —
The following simple test will serve:
Hold the piece up to the light, and if it
can be seen through — that is, if it is
translucent — it is porcelain. Pottery is
opaque, and not so hard and white as
porcelain. The main differences in the
manufacture of stoneware, earthenware,
and porcelain are due to the ingredients
used, to the way they are mixed, and to
the degree of heat to which they are sub-
174
CHEESE
jected in firing. Most of the old English
wares found in this country are pottery
or semichina, although the term china
is commonly applied to them all.
Cheese
Manufacture. — The process of cheese
making is one which is eminently in-
teresting and scientific, and which, in
every gradation, depends on principles
which chemistry has developed and il-
lustrated. When a vegetable or min-
eral acid is added to milk, and heat
applied, a coagulum is formed, which,
when separated from the liquid por-
tion, constitutes cheese. Neutral salts,
earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and
gum arabic, as well as some other sub-
stances, also produce the same effect;
but that which answers the purpose
best, and which is almost exclusively
used by dairy farmers, is rennet, or the
mucous membrane of the last stom-
ach of the calf. Alkalies dissolve this
curd at a boiling heat, and acids again
precipitate it. The solubility of casein
in milk is occasioned by the presence of
the phosphates and other salts of the alka-
lies. In fresh milk these substances may
be readily detected by the property it
possesses of restoring the color of red-
dened litmus paper. The addition of an
acid neutralizes the alkali, and so pre-
cipitates the curd in an insoluble state.
The philosophy of cheese making is thus
expounded by Liebig:
" The acid indispensable to the co-
agulation of milk is not added to the milk
in the preparation of cheese, but it is
formed in the milk at the expense of the
milk-sugar present. A small quantity
of water is left in contact with a small
quantity of a calf's stomach for a few
hours, or for a night; the water absorbs
so minute a portion of the mucous mem-
brane as to be scarcely ponderable; this
is mixed with milk; its state of transfor-
mation is communicated (and this is a
most important circumstance) not to the
cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the ele-
ments of which transpose themselves
into lactic acid, which neutralizes the
alkalies, and thus causes the separation
of the cheese. By means of litmus paper
the process may be followed and observed
through all its stages; the alkaline re-
action of the milk ceases as soon as the
coagulation begins. If the cheese is not
immediately separated from the whey,
the formation of lactic acid continues,
the fluid turns acid, and. the cheese itself
passes into a state of decomposition.
"When cheese-curd is kept in a cool
place a series of transformation takes
place, in consequence of which it as-
sumes entirely new properties; it gradu-
ally becomes semi-transparent, and more
or less soft, throughout the whole mass;
it exhibits a feebly acid reaction, and
develops the characteristic caseous odor.
Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in
water, but after having been left to itself
for two or three years it becomes (es-
pecially if all the fat be previously re-
moved) almost completely soluble in
cold water, forming with it a solution
which, like milk, is coagulated by the
addition of the acetic or any mineral
acid. The cheese, which whilst fresh is
insoluble, returns during the maturation,
or ripening, as it is called, to a state sim-
ilar to that in which it originally existed
in the milk. In those English, Dutch,
and Swiss cheeses which are nearly in-
odorous, and in the superior kinds of
French cheese, the casein of the milk is
present in its unaltered state.
" The odor and flavor of the cheese is
due to the decomposition of the butter;
the non-volatile acids, the margaric and
oleic acids, and the volatile butyric acid,
capric and caproic acids are liberated
in consequence of the decomposition
of glycerine. Butyric acid imparts to
cheese its characteristic caseous odor,
and the differences in its pungency or
aromatic flavor depend upon the propor-
tion of free butyric, capric, and caproic
acids present. In the cheese of certain
dairies and districts, valerianic acid has
been detected along with the other acids
just referred to. Messrs Jljenjo and
Laskowski found this acid in the cheese
of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of
Roquefort.
" The transition of the insoluble into
soluble casein depends upon the de-
composition of the phosphate of lime by
the margaric acid of the butter; mar-
garate of lime is formed, whilst the phos-
phoric acid combines with the casein,
forming a compound soluble in water.
" The bad smell of inferior kinds of
cheese, especially those called meager or
poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid
products containing sulphur, and which
are formed by the decomposition or pu-
trefaction of the casein. The alteration
which the butter undergoes (that is, in
becoming rancid), or which occurs in the
milk-sugar still present, being trans-
mitted to the casein, changes both the
composition of the latter substance and
its nutritive qualities.
" The principal conditions for the prep-
aration of the superior kinds of cheese.
CHEESE
175
(other obvious circumstances being of
course duly regarded) are a careful
removal of the whey, which holds the
milk-sugar in solution, and a low tem-
perature during the maturation or rip-
ening of the cheese."
Cheese differs vastly in quality and
flavor according to the method em-
ployed in its manufacture and the rich-
ness of the milk of which it is made.
Much depends upon the quantity of
cream it contains, and, consequently,
when a superior quality of cheese is de-
sired cream is frequently added to the
curd. This plan is adopted in the man-
ufacture of Stilton cheese and others of
a like description. The addition of a
pound or two of butter to the curd for a
middling size cheese also vastly improves
the quality of the product. To insure
the richness of the milk, not only should
the cows be properly fed, but certain
breeds chosen. Those of Alderney,
Cheddar, Cheshire, etc., have been
widely preferred.
The materials employed in making
cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is
used either fresh or salted and dried;
generally in the latter state. The milk
may be of any kind, according to the
quality of the cheese required. Cows'
milk is that generally employed, but occa-
sionally ewes' milk is used; and some-
times, though more rarely, that from
goats.
In preparing his cheese the dairy
farmer puts the greater portion of the
milk into a large tub, to which he adds
the remainder, sufficiently heated to
raise the temperature to that of new
milk. The whole is then whisked to-
gether, the rennet or rennet liquor added,
and the tub covered over. It is now al-
lowed to stand until completely ** turned,"
when the curd is gently struck down
several times with the skimming dish,
after which it is allowed to subside.
The vat, covered with cheese cloth, is
next placed on a " horse " or " ladder "
over the tub, and filled with curd by
means of the skimmer, care being taken
to allow as little as possible of the oily
particles or butter to run back with the
whey. The curd is pressed down with
the hands, and more added as it sinks.
This process is repeated until the curd
rises to about two inches above the edge.
The newly formed cheese, thus partially
separated from the whey, is now placed
in a clean tub, and a proper quantity of
salt, as well as of annotta, added when
that coloring is used, after which a board
is placed over and under it, and pressure
applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The
cheese is next turned out and surrounded
by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again
submitted to pressure in the cheese
press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is
commonly removed from the press, salted
all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20
hours. The quality of the cheese es-
pecially depends on this part of the proc-
ess, as if any of the whey is left in the
cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavored.
Before placing it in the press the last
time the common practice is to pare the
edges smooth and sightly. It now only
remains to wash the outside of the
cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe
it dry, and to color it with annotta or
reddle, as is usually done.
The storing of the newly made cheese
is the next point that engages the atten-
tion of the maker and wholesale dealer.
The same principles which influence
the maturation or ripening of fermented
liquors also operate here. A cool cellar,
neither damp nor dry, and which is un-
influenced by change of weather or sea-
son, is commonly regarded as the best
for the purpose. If possible, the tem-
perature should on no account be per-
mitted to exceed 50° or 52° F. at any
portion of the year. An average of
about 45° F. is preferable when it can be
procured. A place exposed to sudden
changes of temperature is as unfit for
storing cheese as it is for storing beer.
"The quality of Roquefort cheese, which
is prepared from sheep's milk, and is
very excellent, depends exclusively upon
the places where the cheeses are kept
after pressing and during maturation.
These are cellars, communicating with
mountain grottoes and caverns which
are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to
42° F., by currents of air from clefts in
the mountains. The value of these cel-
lars as storehouses varies with their
property of maintaining an equable and
low temperature."
It will thus be seen that very slight
differences in the materials, in the prep-
aration, or in storing of the cheese, ma-
terially influence the quality and flavor
of this article. The richness of the milk;
the addition to or subtraction of cream
from the milk; the separation of the
curd from the whey with or without com-
pression; the salting of the curd; the
collection of the curd, either whole or
broken, before pressing; the addition of
coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of
flavoring; the place and method of stor-
ing; and the length of time allowed for
maturation, all tend to alter the taste and
odor of the cheese in some or other par-
ticular, and that in a way readily percep-
176
CHEESE
tible to the palate of the connoisseur.
No other alimentary substance appears
to be so seriously affected by slight
variations in the quality of the materials
from which it is made, or by such ap-
parently trifling differences in the meth-
ods of preparing.
The varieties of cheese met with in
commerce are very numerous, and differ
greatly from each other in richness, color,
and flavor. These are commonly dis-
tinguished by names indicative of the
places in which they have been manufac-
tured, or of the quality of the materials
from which they have been prepared.
Thus we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stil-
ton, skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and
other cheeses; names which explain them-
selves. The following are the principal
varieties :
American Factory. — Same as Cheddar.
Brickbat. — Named from its form;
made, in Wiltshire, of new milk and
cream.
Brie. — A soft, white, cream cheese of
French origin.
Cheddar. — A fine, spongy kind of
cheese, the eyes or vesicles of which con-
tain a rich oil; made up into round, thick
cheeses of considerable size (150 to 200
pounds).
Cheshire. — From new milk, without
skimming, the morning's milk being
mixed with that of the preceding even-
ing's, previously warmed, so that the
whole may be brought to the heat of new
milk. To this the rennet is added, in
less quantity than is commonly used for
other kinds of cheese. On this point
much of the flavor and mildness of the
cheese is said to depend. A piece of
dried rennet, of the size of a half-dollar
put into a pint of water over night, and
allowed to stand until the next morn-
ing, is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of
milk; in large, round, thick cheeses (100
to 200 pounds each). They are gen-
erally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and
friable rather than viscid.
Cottenham. — A rich kind of cheese, in
flavor and consistence not unlike Stilton,
from which, however, it differs in shape,
being flatter and broader than the latter.
Cream. — From the "strippings" (the
last of the milk drawn from the cow at
each milking), from a mixture of milk
and cream, or from raw cream only, ac-
cording to the quality desired. It is
usually made in small oblong, square, or
rounded cakes, a general pressure only
(that of a 2- or 4-pound weight) being
applied to press out the whey. After 12
hours it is placed upon a board or wood-
en trencher, and turned every day until
dry. It ripens in about 3 weeks. A
little salt is generally added, and fre-
quently a little powdered lump sugar.
Damson. — Prepared from damsons
boiled with a little water, the pulp passed
through a sieve, and then boiled with
about one-fourth the weight of sugar,
until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it
is next poured into small tin molds pre-
viously dusted out with sugar. Cherry
cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese,
etc., are prepared in the same way, using
the respective kinds of fruit. They are
all very agreeable candies or confections.
Derbyshire. — A small, white, rich
variety, very similar to Dunlop cheese.
Dunlop. — Rich, white, and buttery;
in round forms, weighing from 30 to 60
pounds.
Dutch (Holland).— Of a globular
form, 5 to 14 pounds each. Those from
Edam are very highly salted; those from
Gouda less so.
Emmenthaler. — Same as Gruyere.
Gloucester. — Single Gloucester, from
milk deprived of part of its cream; dou-
ble Gloucester, from milk retaining the
whole of the cream. Mild tasted, semi-
buttery consistence, without being fri-
able; in large, round, flattish forms.
Green or Sage. —From milk mixed with
the juice of an infusion or decoction of
sage leaves, to which marigold flowers
and parsley are frequently added.
Gruyfere. — A fine kind of cheese made
in Switzerland, and largely consumed
on the Continent. It is firm and dry,
and exhibits numerous cells of con-
siderable magnitude.
Holland. — Same as Dutch.
Leguminous. — The Chinese prepare
an actual cheese from peas, called tao-
foo, which they sell in the streets of Can-
ton. The paste from steeped ground
peas is boiled, which causes the starch to
dissolve with the casein; after straining
the liquid it is coagulated by a solution
of gypsum; this coagulum is worked up
like sour milk, salted, and pressed into
molds.
Limburger. — A strong variety of cheese,
soft and well ripened.
Lincoln. — From new milk and cream;
in pieces about 2 inches thick. Soft, and
will not keep over 2 or 3 months.
CHEESE
177
Neufchatel. — A much-esteemed vari-
ety of Swiss cheese; made of cream, and
weighs about 5 or 6 ounces.
Norfolk. — Dyed yellow with annotta
or saffron; good, but not superior; in
cheeses of 30 to 50 pounds.
Parmesan. — From the curd of skimmed
milk, hardened by a gentle heat. The
rennet is added at about 120°, and an
hour afterwards the curdling milk is set
on a slow fire until heated to about 150°
F., during which the curd separates in
small lumps. A few pinches of saffron
are then thrown in. About a fortnight
after making the outer crust is cut off,
and the new surface varnished with lin-
seed oil, and one side colored red.
Roquefort. — From ewes' milk; the
best prepared in France. It greatly
resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of
equal richness or quality, and possesses
a peculiar pungency and flavor.
Roquefort, Imitation. — The gluten of
wheat is kneaded with a little salt and a
small portion of a solution of starch, and
made up into cheeses. It is said that
this mixture soon acquires the taste,
smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and
when kept a certain time is not to be dis-
tinguished from the celebrated Roquefort
cheese, of which it possesses all the pecu-
liar pungency. By slightly varying the
process other kinds of cheese may be
imitated.
Sage. — Same as green cheese.
Slipcoat or Soft. — A very rich, white
cheese, somewhat resembling butter;
for present use only.
Stilton. — The richest and finest cheese
made in England. From raw milk to
which cream taken from other milk is
added; in cheeses generally twicers high
as they are broad. Like wine, this
cheese is vastly improved by age, and is
therefore seldom eaten before it is 2
years old. A spurious appearance of
age is sometimes given to it by placing
it in a warm, damp cellar, or by sur-
rounding it with masses of fermenting
straw or dung.
Suffolk. — From skimmed milk; in
round, flat forms, from 24 to 30 pounds
each. Very hard and horny.
Swiss. — The principal cheeses made
in Switzerland are the Gruyere, the
Neufchatel, and the Schabzieger or
green cheese. The latter is flavored
with melitot.
Westphalian. — Made in small balls or
rolls of about 1 pound each. It derives
its peculiar flavor from the curd being
allowed to become partially putrid before
being pressed. In small balls or rolls of
about 1 pound each.
Wiltshire. — Resembles Cheshire or
Gloucester. The outside is painted with
reddle or red ocher or whey.
York. — From cream. It will not keep.
We give below the composition of
some of the principal varieties of cheese:
Double
Ched- Glouces- Skim
dar ter
Water 36.64 35.61 43.64
Casein 23.38 21.76 45.64
Fatty matter 35.44 38.16 5.76
Mineral matter.. 4.54 4.47 4.96
100.00 100.00 100.00
Water
Butter
Casein
Milk, sugar, and ex-
tractive matters
Mineral matter
Stilton Cother-
stone
32.18 38.28
37.36 30.89
24.31 23.93
2.22
3.93
3.70
3.20
100.00 100.00
Gruyere Ordinary
(Swiss) Dutch
Water 40.00 36.10
Casein 31.50 29.40
Fatty matter 24.00 27.50
Salts 3.00 .90
Non - nitrogenous or-
ganic matter and
loss 1.50 6.10
100.00 100.00
When a whole cheese is cut, and the
consumption small, it is generally found
to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose
flavor before it is consumed. This is
best prevented by cutting a sufficient
quantity for a few days' consumption
from the cheese, and keeping the re-
mainder in a cool place, rather damp
than dry, spreading a thin film of butter
over the fresh surface, and covering it
with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt.
This removes the objection existing in
small families against purchasing a
whole cheese at a time. The common
practice of buying small quantities of
cheese should be avoided, as not only a
higher price is paid for any given quality
but there is little likelihood of obtaining
exactly the same flavor twice running.
Should cheese become too dry to b§
178
CHEWING GUMS
agreeable, it may be used for stewing,
or for making grated cheese, or Welsh
rarebits.
Goats* Milk Cheese.— Goats' milk
cheese is made as follows: Warm 20
quarts of milk and coagulate it with
rennet, either the powder or extract.
Separate the curds from the whey in a
colander. After a few days the dry curd
may be shaped into larger or smaller
cheeses, the former only salted, the latter
containing salt and caraway seed. The
cheeses must be turned every day, and
sprinkled with salt, and any mold re-
moved. After a few days they may be
put away on shelves to ripen, and left for
several weeks. Pure goat's milk cheese
should be firm and solid all the way
through. Twenty quarts of milk will
make about 4 pounds of cheese,
CHEESE COLORANT:
See Food.
CHEMICAL GARDENS:
See Gardens, Chemical.
CHERRY BALSAM:
See Balsam.
CHERRY CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
Chewing Gums
Manufacture. — The making of chew-
ing gum is by no means the simple oper-
ation which it seems to be. Much expe-
rience in manipulation is necessary to
succeed, and the published formulas can
at best serve as a guide rather than as
something to be absolutely and blindly
followed. Thus, if the mass is either too
hard or soft, change the proportions until
it is right; often it will be found that
different purchases of the same article
will vary in their characteristics when
worked up. But given a basis, the man-
ufacturer can flavor and alter to suit
himself. The most successful manu-
facturers attribute their success to the
employment of the most approved ma-
chinery and the greatest attention to
details. The working formulas and the
processes of these manufacturers are
guarded as trade secrets, and aside from
publishing general formulas, little in-
formation can be given.
Chicle gum is purified by boiling with
water and separating the foreign matter.
Flavorings, pepsin, sugar, etc., are
worked in under pressure by suitable
machinery. Formula:
I. — Gum chicle 1 pound
Sugar 2 pounds
Glucose 1 pound
Caramel butter 1 pound
First mash and soften the gum at a
gentle heat. Place the sugar and glu-
cose in a small copper pan; add enough
water to dissolve the sugar; set on a fire
and cook to 244° F. ; lift off the fire; add
the caramel butter and lastly the gum;
mix well into a smooth paste; roll out on a
smooth marble, dusting with finely pow-
dered sugar, run through sizing machine
to the proper thickness, cut into strips,
and again into thin slices.
II. — Chicle 6 ounces
Paraffine 2 ounces
Balsam of Tolu ... 2 drachms
Balsam of Peru. . . 1 drachm
Sugar 20 ounces
Glucose 8 ounces
Water 6 ounces
Flavoring, enough.
Triturate the chicle and balsams in
water, take out and add the paraffine,
first heated. Boil the sugar, glucose,
and water together to what is known to
confectioners as "crack " heat, pour the
syrup over the oil slab and turn into it
the gum mixture, which will make it
tough and plastic. Add any desired
flavor.
III. — Gum chicle 122 parts
Paraffine 42 parts
Balsam of Tolu. ... 4 parts
Sugar 384 parts
Water 48 parts
Dissolve the sugar in the water by the
aid of heat and pour the resultant syrup
on an oiled slab. Melt the gum, balsam,
and paraffine together and pour on top
of the syrup, and work the whole up to-
gether.
IV. — Gum chicle 240 parts
White wax 64 parts
Sugar 640 parts
Glucose 128 parts
Water 192 parts
Balsam of Peru ... 4 parts
Flavoring matter, enough.
Proceed as indicated in II.
V.— Balsam of Tolu 4 parts
Benzoin 1 part
White wax 1 part
Paraffine 1 part
Powdered sugar. ... 1 part
Melt together, mix well, and roll into
sticks of the usual dimensions.
Mix, and, when sufficiently cool, roll
out into sticks or any other desirable
form,
CHEWING GUMS— CHOLERA REMEDIES
179
Spruce Chewing Gum. —
Spruce gum 20 parts
Chicle 20 parts
Sugar, powdered. . 60 parts
Melt the gums separately, mix while
hot, and immediately add the sugar, a
small portion at a time, kneading it thor-
oughly on a hot slab. When com-
pletely incorporated remove to a cold
slab, previously dusted with powdered
sugar, roll out at once into sheets, and
cut into sticks. Any desired flavor or
color may be added to or incorporated
with the sugar.
CHICKEN-COOP APPLICATION:
See Insecticides.
CHICKEN DISEASES AND THEIR
REMEDIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CHICORY, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
CHILBLAINS:
See Ointments.
CHILBLAIN SOAP:
See Soap.
CHILDREN, DOSES FOR:
See Doses.
CHILLS, BITTERS FOR:
See Wines and Liquors.
CHINA CEMENTS:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
CHINA:
See Ceramics.
CHINA, TO REMOVE BURNED LET-
TERS FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
CHINA REPAIRING:
See Porcelain.
CHINA RIVETING.
China riveting is best left to practical
men, but it can be done with a drill made
from a splinter of a diamond fixed on a
handle. If this is not to be had, get a
small three-cornered file, harden it by
placing it in the fire till red hot, and then
plunging it in cold water. Next grind
the point on a grindstone and finish on
an oilstone. With the point pick out the
place to be bored, taking care to do it
fently for fear of breaking the article,
n a little while a piece will break off,
then the hole can easily be made by
working the point round. The wire
may then be passed through and fas-
tened. A good cement may be made
from 1 ounce of grated cheese, J ounce
of finely powdered quicklime, and white
of egg sufficient to make a paste. The
less cement applied the better, using a
feather to spread it over the broken
edge.
CHLORIDES, PLATT'S:
See Disinfectants.
CHLORINE-PROOFING :
See Acid-Proofing.
CHOCOLATE.
Prepare 1,000 parts of finished cacao
and 30 parts of fresh cacao oil, in a
warmed, polished, iron mortar, into a
liquid substance, add to it 800 parts of
finely powdered sugar, and, after a good
consistency has been reached, 60 parts of
powdered iron lactate and 60 parts of
sugar syrup, finely rubbed together.
Scent with 40 parts of vanilla sugar. Of
this mass weigh out tablets of 125 parts
into the molds.
Coating Tablets with Chocolate. —If a
chocolate which is free from sugar be
placed in a dish over a water bath, it will
melt into a fluid of proper consistence
for coating tablets. No water must be
added. The coating is formed by dip-
ping the tablets. When they are suffi-
ciently hardened they are laid on oiled
paper to dry.
CHOCOLATE CASTOR - OIL LOZ-
ENGES:
See Castor Oil.
CHOCOLATE CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
CHOCOLATE EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
CHOCOLATE SODA WATER:
See Beverages.
CHOKING IN CATTLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CHOLERA REMEDIES:
Sun Cholera Mixture.—
Tincture of opium ... 1 part
Tincture of capsicum. 1 part
Tincture of rhubarb. . 1 part
Spirit of camphor .... 1 part
Spirit of peppermint . . 1 pa~t
Squibb's Diarrhea Mixture.—
Tincture opium 40 parts
Tincture capsicum. . . 40 parts
Spirit camphor 40 parts
Chloroform 15 parts
Alcohol 65 parts
180
CHOLERA REMEDIES— CIDER
Aromatic Rhubarb. —
Cinnamon, ground . . 8 parts
Rhubarb 8 parts
Calumba 4 parts
Saffron 1 part
Powdered opium 2 parts
Oil peppermint 5 parts
Alcohol, q. s. ad . . . . 100 parts
Macerate the ground drugs with 75
parts alcohol in a closely covered per-
colator for several days, then allow per-
colation to proceed, using sufficient al-
cohol to obtain 95 parts of percolate. In
percolate dissolve the oil of peppermint.
Rhubarb and Camphor. —
Tincture capsicum. . . 2 ounces
Tincture opium 2 ounces
Tincture camphor.. . . 3 ounces
Tincture catechu 4 ounces
Tincture rhubarb. ... 4 ounces
Spirit peppermint. ... 4 ounces
Blackberry Mixture. —
Fluid extract black-
berry root 2 pints
Fluid ginger, soluble. 5J ounces
Fluid catechu 5J ounces
Fluid opium for tinc-
ture 160 minims
Brandy 8 ounces
Sugar 4 pounds
Essence cloves 256 minims
Essence cinnamon . . 256 minims
Chloroform 128 minims
Alcohol (25 per cent),
q. s. ad 1 gallon
CHOWCHOW:
See Condiments.
CHROME YELLOW, TEST FOR:
See Pigments.
CHROMIUM GLUE:
See Adhesives.
CHROMO MAKING.
The production of chromo pictures
requires a little skill. Practice is neces-
sary. The glass plate to be used should
be washed off with warm water, and then
laid in a 10 per cent solution of nitric
acid. After one hour, wash with clean,
cold water, dry with a towel, and polish
the plate with good alcohol on the in-
side— hollow side — until no finger marks
or streaks are visible. This is best as-
certained by breathing on the glass; the
breath should show an even blue surface
on the glass.
Coat the unmounted photograph to be
colored with benzine by means of wad-
ding, but without pressure, so that the
retouching of the picture is not dis-
turbed. Place 2 tablets of ordinary
kitchen gelatin in 8f ounces of distilled
or pure rain water, soak for an hour, and
then heat until the gelatin has com-
pletely dissolved. Pour this warm solu-
tion over the polished side of the glass,
so that the liquid is evenly distributed.
The best way is to pour the solution on
the upper right-hand corner, allowing it
to flow into the left-hand corner, from
there to the left below and right below,
finally letting the superfluous liquid
run off. Take the photograph, which
has been previously slightly moistened
on the back, lay it with the picture
side on the gelatin-covered plate, cen-
tering it nicely, and squeeze out the
excess gelatin solution gently, prefer-
ably by means of a rubber squeegee.
Care must be taken, however, not to dis-
place the picture in this manipulation, as
it is easily spoiled.
The solution must never be allowed to
boil, since this would render the gelatin
brittle and would result in the picture,
after having been finished, cracking off
from the glass in a short time. When
the picture has been attached to the glass
plate without blisters (which is best ob-
served from the back), the edge of the
glass is cleansed of gelatin, preferably
by means of a small sponge and luke-
warm water, and the plate is allowed to
dry over night.
When the picture and the gelatin are
perfectly dry, coat the back of the picture
a few times with castor oil until it is per-
fectly transparent; carefully remove the
oil without rubbing, and proceed with
the painting, which is best accomplished
with good, not over-thick oil colors. The
coloring must be observed from the glass
side, and for this reason the small details,
such as eyes, lips, beard, and hair,
should first be sketched in. When the
first coat is dry the dress and the flesh
tints are painted. The whole surface
may be painted over, and it is not neces-
sary to paint shadows, as these are al-
ready present in the picture, and con-
sequently show the color through in
varying strength.
When the coloring has dried, a second
glass plate should be laid on for protec-
tion, pasting the two edges together with
narrow strips of linen.
Cider
To Make Cider.— Pick the apples off
the tree by hand. Every apple before
going into the press should be carefully
CIDER
181
wiped. As soon as a charge of apples
is ground, remove the pomace and put in
a cask with a false bottom and a strainer
beneath it, and a vessel to catch the
drainage from pomace. As fast as the
juice runs from the press place it in
clean, sweet, open tubs or casks with the
heads out and provide with a faucet, put
in about two inches above bottom. The
juice should be closely watched and as
soon as the least sign of fermentation ap-
pears (bubbles on top, etc.) it should be
run off into casks prepared for this pur-
pose and placed in a moderately cool
room. The barrels should be entirely
filled, or as near to the bunghole as
possible. After fermentation is well
under way the spume or foam should be
scraped off with a spoon several times a
day. When fermentation has ceased
the cider is racked off into clean casks,
filled to the bunghole, and the bung
driven in tightly. It is now ready for
use or for bottling.
Champagne Cider. — I. — To convert or-
dinary cider into champagne cider, pro-
ceed as follows: To 100 gallons of good
cider add 3 gallons of strained honey (or
24 pounds of white sugar will answer),
stir in well, tightly bung, and let alone
for a week. Clarify the cider by adding
a half gallon of skimmed milk, or 4 ounces
of gelatin dissolved in sufficient hot
water and add 4 gallons of proof spirit.
Let stand 3 days longer, then syphon off,
bottle, cork, and tie or wire down.
Bunging the cask tightly is done in order
to induce a slow fermentation, and thus
retain in the cider as much carbonic acid
as possible.
II. — Put 10 gallons of old and clean
cider in a strong and iron-bound cask,
pitched within (a sound beer cask is the
very thing), and add and stir in well 40
ounces of simple syrup. Add 5 ounces
of tartaric acid, let dissolve, then add 7|
ounces sodium bicarbonate in powder.
Have the bung ready and the moment
the soda is added put it in and drive it
home. The cider will be ready for use
in a few hours.
Cider Preservative. — I. — The addition
of 154 grains of bismuth subnitrate to 22
gallons of cider prevents, or materially
retards, the hardening of the beverage on
exposure to air; moreover, the bismuth
salt renders alcoholic fermentation more
complete.
II. — Calcium sulphite (sulphite of
lime) is largely used to prevent fermen-
tation in cider. About J to I of an ounce
of the sulphite is required for 1 gallon of
cider. It should first be dissolved in a
small quantity of cider, then added to
the bulk, and the whole agitated until
thoroughly mixed. The barrel should
then be bunged and allowed to stand for
several days, until the action of the sul-
phite is exerted. It will preserve the
sweetness of cider perfectly, but care
should be taken not to add too much, as
that would impart a slight sulphurous
taste.
Artificial Ciders.— To 25 gallons of
soft water add 2 pounds of tartaric acid,
25 or 30 pounds of sugar, and a pint of
yeast; put in a warm place, and let fer-
ment for 15 days, then add the flavoring
matter to suit taste. The various fruit
ethers are for sale at any wholesale drug
house.
Bottling Sweet Cider. — Champagne
quarts are generally used for bottling
cider, as they are strong and will stand
pressure, besides being a convenient
size for consumers. In making cider
champagne the liquor should be clari-
fied and bottled in the sweet condition,
that is to say, before the greater part of
the sugar which it contains has been
converted into alcohol by fermentation.
The fermentation continues, to a certain
extent, in the bottle, transforming more
of the sugar into alcohol, and the car-
bonic acid, being unable to escape, is
dissolved in the cider and produces the
sparkling.
The greater the quantity of sugar
contained in the liquor, when it is bot-
tled, the more complete is its carbona-
tion by the carbonic-acid gas, and con-
sequently the more sparkling it is when
poured out. But this is true only within
certain limits, for if the production of
sugar is too high the fermentation will
be arrested.
To make the most sparkling cider the
liquor is allowed to stand for three, four,
five, or six weeks, during which fermen-
tation proceeds. The time varies ac-
cording to the nature of the apples, and
also to the temperature; when it is very
warm the first fermentation is usually
completed in 7 days.
Before bottling, the liquid must be
fined, and this is best done with catechu
dissolved in cold cider, 2 ounces of cate-
chu to the barrel of cider. This is well
stirred and left to settle for a few days.
The cider at this stage is still sweet,
and it is a point of considerable nicety
not to carry the first fermentation too
far. The bottle should not be quite
filled, so as to allow more freedom for
the carbonic-acid gas which forms.
When the bottles have been filled,
182
CIDER— CIGARS
corked, and wired down, they should be
placed in a good cellar, which should be
dry, or else the cider will taste of the
cork. The bottles should not be laid
for four or five weeks, or breakage will
ensue. When they are being laid they
should be placed on laths of wood or on
dry sand; they should never be allowed
on cold or damp floors.
Should the cider be relatively poor in
sugar, or if it has been fermented too far,
about 1 ounce of powdered loaf sugar
can be added to each bottle, or else a
measure of sugar syrup before pouring
in the cider.
Imitation Cider. —
I. — A formula for an imitation cider is
as follows:
Rain water 100 gallons
Honey, unstrained . . 6 gallons
Catechu, powdered. 3 ounces
Alum, powdered. ... 5 ounces
Yeast (brewer's pref-
erably) 2 pints
Mix and put in a warm place to fer-
ment. Let ferment for about 15 days;
then add the following, stirring well in:
Bitter almonds, crushed 8 ounces
Cloves 8 ounces
Let stand 24 hours, add two or three
gallons of good whiskey, and rack off into
clean casks. Bung tightly, let stand 48
hours, then bottle. If a higher color is
desired use caramel sufficient to pro-
duce the correct tinge. If honey is not
obtainable, use sugar-house molasses
instead, but honey is preferable.
II. — The following, when properly
prepared, makes a passable substitute
for cider, and a very pleasant drink:
Catechu, powdered. 3 parts
Alum, powdered. . . 5 parts
Honey 640 parts
Water 12,800 parts
Yeast 32 parts
Dissolve the catechu, alum, and honey
in the water, add the yeast, and put in
some warm place to ferment. The con-
tainer should be filled to the square open-
ing, made by sawing out five or six inches
of the center of a stave, and the spume
skimmed off daily as it arises. In cooler
weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be
required for thorough fermentation. In
warmer weather from 12 to 13 days will
be sufficient. When fermentation is com-
plete add the following solution:
Oil of bitter almonds 1 part
Oil of clover 1 part
Caramel 32 parts
Alcohol 192 parts
The alcohol may be replaced by twice
its volume of good bourbon whiskey. A
much cheaper, but correspondingly poor
substitute for the above may be made as
follows:
Twenty-five gallons of soft water, 2
pounds tartaric acid, 25 pounds of brown
sugar, and 1 pint of yeast are allowed to
stand in a warm place, in a clean cask
with the bung out, for 24 hours. Then
bung up the cask, after adding 3 gallons
of whiskey, and let stand for 48 hours,
after which the liquor is ready for use.
CIDER VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
Cigars
Cigar Sizes and Colors. — Cigars are
named according to their color and
shape. A dead-black cigar, for instance,
is an "Oscuro," a very dark-brown one
is a "Colorado," a medium brown is a
"Colorado Claro," and a yellowish light
brown is a "Claro." Most smokers
know the names of the shades from
"Claro" to "Colorado," and that is as
far as most of them need to know. As to
the shapes, a "Napoleon" is the biggest
of all cigars — being 7 inches long; a "Per-
fecto" swells in the middle and tapers
down to a very small head at the lighting
end; a "Panatela" is a thin, straight, up-
and-down cigar without the graceful
curve of the "Perfecto"; a "Conchas" is
very short and fat, and a "Londres" is
shaped like a "Perfecto" except that it
does not taper to so small a head at the
lighting end. A "Reina Victoria" is a
"Londres" that comes packed in a rib-
bon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of
in the usual four layers of 13, 12, 13 and
12.
How to Keep Cigars. — Cigars kept in
a case are influenced every time the case
is opened. Whatever of taint there may
be in the atmosphere rushes into the
case, and is finally taken up by the cigars.
Even though the cigars have the appear-
ance of freshness, it is not the original
freshness in which they were received
from the factory. They have been dry,
or comparatively so, and have absorbed
more moisture than has been put in the
case, and it matters not what that mois-
ture may be, it can never restore the
flavor that was lost during the drying-out
process.
After all, it is a comparatively simple
matter to take good care of cigars. All
that is necessary is a comparatively air-
tight, zinc-lined chest. This should be
CIGARS— CLARET PUNCH
183
behind the counter in a place where the
temperature is even. When a customer
calls for a cigar the dealer takes the box
out of the chest, serves his customer, and
then puts the box back again. The box
being opened for a moment the cigars are
not perceptibly affected. The cigars in
the close, heavy chest are always safe
from atmospheric influences, as the boxes
are closed, and the chest is open but a
moment, while the dealer is taking out a
box from which to serve his customer.
Some of the best dealers have either a
large chest or a cool vault in which they
keep their stock, taking out from time to
time whatever they need for use. Some
have a number of small chests, in which
they keep different brands, so as to avoid
opening and closing one particular chest
so often.
It may be said that it is only the high-
er priced cigars that need special care in
handling, although the cheaper grades
are not to be handled carelessly. The
Havana cigars are more susceptible to
change, for there is a delicacy of flavor to
be preserved that is never present in the
cheaper grades of cigars.
Every dealer must, of course, make a
display in his show case, but he need not
serve his patrons with these cigars. The
shrinkage in value of the cigars in the
case is merely a business proposition of
profit and loss.
Cigar Flavoring. — I. — Macerate 2
ounces of cinnamon and 4 ounces of
tonka beans, ground fine, in 1 quart of
rum.
II. — Moisten ordinary cigars with a
strong tincture of cascarilla, to which a
little gum benzoin and storax may be
added. Some persons add a small quan-
tity of camphor or oil of cloves or cassia.
III. — Tincture of valerian. 4 drachms
Butyric aldehyde. . . 4 drachms
Nitrous ether 1 drachm
Tincture vanilla. ... 2 drachms
Alcohol 5 ounces
Water enough to
make 16 ounces
IV. — Extract vanilla 4 ounces
Alcohol $ gallon
Jamaica rum £ gallon
Tincture valerian. . . 8 ounces
Caraway seed 2 ounces
i English valerian root 2 ounces
Bitter orange peel. . . 2 ounces
Tonka beans 4 drachms
Myrrh 16 ounces
Soak the myrrh for 3 days in 6 quarts
of water, add the alcohol, tincture va-
lerian, and extract of vanilla, and after
grinding the other ingredients to a coarse
powder, put all together in a jug and
macerate for 2 weeks, occasionally shak-
ing; lastly, strain.
V.— Into a bottle filled with £ pint of
French brandy put 1J ounces of cascar-
illa bark and 1J ounces of vanilla pre-
viously ground with £ pound of sugar;
carefully close up the flask and distil in a
warm place. After 3 days pour off the
liquid, and add J pint of mastic extract.
The finished cigars are moistened with
this liquid, packed in boxes, and pre-
served from air by a well-closed lid.
They are said to acquire a pleasant flavor
and mild strength through this treat-
ment.
Cigar Spots. — The speckled appear-
ance of certain wrappers is due to the
work of a species of fungus that attacks
the growing tobacco. In a certain dis-
trict of Sumatra, which produces an ex-
ceptionally fine tobacco for wrappers,
the leaves of the plant are commonly
speckled in this way. Several patents
have been obtained for methods of spot-
ting tobacco leaves artificially. A St.
Louis firm uses a solution composed of:
Sodium carbonate 3 parts
Calx chlorinata 1 part
Hot water 8 parts
Dissolve the washing soda in the hot
water, add the chlorinated lime, and
heat the mixture to a boiling tempera-
ture for 3 minutes. When cool, decant
into earthenware or stoneware jugs, cork
tightly, and keep in a cool place. The
corks of jugs not intended for immediate
use should be covered with a piece of
bladder or strong parchment paper, and
tightly tied down to prevent the escape of
gas, and consequent weakening of the
bleaching power of the fluid. The pre-
pared liquor is sprinkled on the tobacco,
the latter being then exposed to light and
air, when, it is said, the disagreeable odor
produced soon disappears.
CINCHONA:
See Wines and Liquors.
CINNAMON ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
CINNAMON OIL AS AN ANTISEPTIC:
See Antiseptics.
CITRATE OF MAGNESIUM:
See Magnesium Citrate.
CLARET LEMONADE AND CLARET
PUNCH :
See Beverages, under Lemonades.
184
CL A RIFYING— CLEANING PREPARATIONS
CLARIFICATION OF GELATIN AND
GLUE:
See Gelatin.
CLARIFYING.
Clarification is the process by which
any solid particles suspended in a liquid
are either caused to coalesce together or
to adhere to the medium used for clar-
ifying, that they may be removed by fil-
tration (which would previously have
been impossible), so as to render the
liquid clear.
One of the best agents for this purpose
is albumen. When clarifying vegetable
extracts, the albumen which is naturally
present in most plants accomplishes this
purpose easily, provided the vegetable
matter is extracted in the cold, so as to
get as much albumen as possible in solu-
tion.
Egg albumen may also be used. The
effect of albumen may be increased by
the addition of cellulose, in the form of a
fine magma of filtering paper. This has
the further advantage that the subse-
quent filtration is much facilitated.
Suspended particles of gum or pectin
may be removed by cautious precipita-
tion with tannin, of which only an ex-
ceedingly small amount is usually neces-
sary. It combines with the gelatinous
substances better with the aid of heat
than in the cold. There must be no ex-
cess of tannin used.
Another method of clarifying liquids
turbid from particles of gum, albumen,
pectin, etc., is to add to them a definite
quantity of alcohol. This causes the
former substances to separate in more or
less large flakes. The quantity of alco-
hol required varies greatly according to
the nature of the liquid. It should be
determined in each case by an experiment
on a small scale.
Resinous or waxy substances, such as
are occasionally met with in honey, etc.,
may be removed by the addition of bole,
pulped filtering paper, and heating to
boiling.
In each case the clarifying process
may be hastened by making the separat-
ing particles specifically heavier; that is,
by incorporating some heavier sub-
stance, such as talcum, etc., which may
cause the flocculi to sink more rapidly,
and to form a compact sediment.
Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids:
Egg albumen, dry. ... 40 parts
Sugar of milk 40 parts
Starch 20 parts
Reduce them to very fine powder, and
mix thoroughly.
For clarifying liquors, wines, essences,
etc., take for every quart of liquid 75
grains of the above mixture, shake re-
peatedly in the course of a few days, the
mixture being kept in a warm ' room,
then filter.
Powdered talcum renders the same
service, and has the additional advan-
tage of being entirely insoluble. How-
ever, the above mixture acts more ener-
getically.
CLAY:
Claying Mixture for Forges. — Twenty
parts fire clay; 20 parts cast-iron turn-
ings; 1 part common salt; ^ part sal am-
moniac; all by measure.
The materials should be thoroughly
mixed dry and then wet down to the con-
sistency of common mortar, constantly
stirring the mass as the wetting proceeds.
A rough mold shaped to fit the tuyere
opening, a trowel, and a few minutes'
time are all that are needed to complete
the successful claying of the forge. This
mixture dries hard and when glazed by
the fire will last.
Plastic Modeling Clay. — A perma-
nently plastic clay can be obtained by
first mixing it with glycerine, turpen-
tine, or similar bodies, and then adding
vaseline or petroleum residues rich in
vaseline. The proportion of clay to the
vaseline varies according to the desired
consistency of the product, the admix-
ture of vaseline varying from 10 to 50
per cent. It is obvious that the hardness
of the material decreases with the
amount of vaseline added, so that the one
richest in vaseline will be the softest. By
the use of various varieties of clay and
the suitable choice of admixtures, the
plasticity, as well as the color of the mass,
may be varied.
Cleaning Preparations and
Methods
(See also Soaps, Polishes, and House-
hold Formulas).
TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE
HANDS:
Removal of Aniline -Dye Stains from
the Skin. — Rub the stained skin with
a pinch of slightly moistened red crys-
tals of chromic trioxide until a distinct
sensation of warmth announces the de-
struction of the dye stuff by oxidation
and an incipient irritation of the skin.
Then rinse with soap and water. A sin-
gle application usually suffices to remove
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
185
the stain. It is hardly necessary to call
attention to the poisonousness and strong
caustic action of chromic trioxide; but
only moderate caution is required to
avoid evil effects.
Pyrogallic-Acid Stains on the Fingers
(see also Photography). — Pyro stains may
be prevented fairly well by rubbing in a
little wool fat before beginning work. A
very effective way of eliminating devel-
oper stains is to dip the ringer tips occa-
sionally during development into the
clearing bath. It is best to use the
clearing bath, with ample friction, be-
fore resorting to soap, as the latter seems
to have a fixing effect upon the stain.
Lemon peel is useful for removing pyro
stains, and so are the ammonium per-
sulphate reducer and the thiocarbamide
clearer.
To Clean Very Soiled Hands.— In the
morning wash in warm water, using a
stiff brush, and apply glycerine. Re-
peat the application two or three times
during the day, washing and brushing an
hour or so afterwards, or apply a warm
solution of soda or potash, and wash in
warm water, using a stiff brush as before.
Finally, rub the hands with pumice or
infusorial earth. There are soaps made
especially for this purpose, similar to
those for use on woodwork, etc., in
which infusorial earth or similar matter
is incorporated.
To Remove Nitric-Acid Stains. — One
plan to avoid stains is to use rubber
finger stalls, or rubber gloves. Nitric-
acid stains can be removed from the
hands by painting the stains with a solu-
tion of permanganate of potash, and
washing off the permanganate with a 5
per cent solution of hydrochloric (muri-
atic) acid. After this wash the hands
with pure castile soap. Any soap that
roughens the skin should be avoided at
all times. Castile soap is the best to
keep the skin in good condition.
CLEANING GILDED ARTICLES:
To Clean Gilt Frames and Gilded Sur-
faces Generally. — Dip a soft brush in
alcohol to which a few drops of ammonia
water has been added, and with it go
over the surface. Do not rub — at least,
not roughly, or harshly. In the course
of five minutes the dirt will have become
soft, and easy of removal. Then go over
the surface again gently with the same or
a similar brush dipped in rain water.
Now lay the damp article in the sunlight
to dry. If there is no sunlight, place it
near a warm (but not hot} stove, and
let dry completely. In order to avoid
streaks, take care that the position of the
article, during the drying, is not exactly
vertical.
To Clean Fire-Gilt Articles.— Fire-gilt
articles are cleaned, according to their
condition, with water, diluted hydro-
chloric acid, ammonia, or potash solu-
tion. If hydrochloric acid is employed
thorough dilution with water is especially
necessary. The acidity should hardly
be noticeable on the tongue.
To clean gilt articles, such as gold
moldings, etc., when they have become
tarnished or covered with flyspecks, etc.,
rub them slowly with an onion cut in half
and dipped in rectified alcohol, and wash
off lightly with a moist soft sponge after
about 2 hours.
Cleaning Gilded and Polychromed
Work on Altars. — To clean bright gold
a fine little sponge is used which is
moistened but lightly with tartaric acid
and passed over the gilding. Next go
over the gilt work with a small sponge
saturated with alcohol to remove all dirt.
For matt gilding, use only a white flannel
dipped in lye, and carefully wipe off the
dead gold with this, drying next with a
fine linen rag. To clean polychromed
work sponge with a lye of rain water,
1,000 parts, and calcined potash, 68
parts, and immediately wash off with a
clean sponge and water, so that the lye
does not attack the paint too much.
SPOT AND STAIN REMOVERS:
To Remove Aniline Stains. —
I. — Sodium nitrate 7 grains
Diluted sulphuric acid 15 grains
Water 1 ounce
Let the mixture stand a day or two
before using. Apply to the spot with a
sponge, and rinse the goods with plenty
of water.
II. — An excellent medium for the re-
moval of aniline stains, which are often
very stubborn, has been found to be
liquid opodeldoc. After its use the
stains are said to disappear at once and
entirely.
Cleansing Fluids. — A spot remover is
made as follows:
I. — Saponine 7 parts
Water 130 parts
Alcohol 70 parts
Benzine. ... % 1,788 parts
Oil mirbane 5 parts
II. — Benzene (benzol).. 89 parts
Ascetic ether 10 parts
Pear oil 1 part
This yields an effective grease eradi-
cator, of an agreeable odor.
186
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
III.— To Remove Stains of Sulphate of
copper, or of salts of mercury, silver, or
gold from the hands, etc., wash them first
with a dilute solution either of ammonia,
iodide, bromide, or cyanide of potassium,
and then with plenty of water; if the
stains are old ones they should first be
rubbed with the strongest acetic acid
and then treated as above.
Removal of Picric-Acid Stains. — I. —
Recent stains of picric acid may be re-
moved readily if the stain is covered with
a layer of magnesium carbonate, the car-
bonate moistened with a little water to
form a paste, and the paste then rubbed
over the spot.
II. — Apply a solution of
Boric acid 4 parts
Sodium benzoate. ... 1 part
Water 100 parts
III. — Dr. Prieur, of Besan9on, recom-
mends lithium carbonate for the removal
of picric-acid stains from the skin or
from linen. The method of using it is
simply to lay a small pinch on the stain,
and moisten the latter with water. Fresh
stains disappear almost instantly, and
old ones in a minute or two.
To Remove Finger Marks from Books,
etc. — I. — Pour benzol (not benzine or
gasoline, but Merck's "c. p." crystalliz-
able) on calcined magnesia until it be-
comes a crumbling mass, and apply this
to the spot, rubbing it in lightly, with the
tip of the finger. When the benzol
evaporates, brush off. Any dirt that re-
mains can be removed by using a piece
of soft rubber.
II. — If the foregoing fails (which it
sometimes, though rarely, does), try the
following: Make a hot solution of sodium
hydrate in distilled water, of strength of
from 3 per cent to 5 per cent, according
to the age, etc., of the stain. Have pre-
pared some bits of heavy blotting paper
somewhat larger than the spot to be re-
moved; also, a blotting pad, or several
pieces of heavy blotting paper. Lay the
spiled page face downward on the blot-
ting pad, then, saturating one of the bits
of blotter with the hot sodium hydrate
solution, put it on the stain and go over
it with a hot smoothing iron. If one ap-
plication does not remove all the grease
or stain, repeat the operation. Then
saturate another bit of blotting paper with
a 4 per cent or 5 per cent solution of hy-
drochloric acid in distilled water, apply
it to the place, and pass the iron over it
to neutralize the strong alkali. This process
will instantly restore any faded writing
or printing, and make the paper bright
and fresh again.
Glycerine as a Detergent. — For cer-
tain kinds of obstinate spots (such as
coffee and chocolate, for instance) there
is no better detergent than glycerine,
especially for fabrics with delicate colors.
Apply the glycerine to the spot, with a
sponge or otherwise, let stand a min-
ute or so, then wash off with water or
alcohol. Hot glycerine is even more
efficient than cold.
CLEANING SKINS AND LEATHER:
See also Leather.
To Clean Colored Leather. — Pour car-
bon bisulphide on non-vulcanized gutta-
percha, and allow it to stand about 24
hours. After shaking actively add more
gutta-percha gradually until the solution
becomes of gelatinous consistency.
This mixture is applied in suitable quan-
tity to oil-stained, colored leather and
allowed to dry two or three hours. The
subsequent operation consists merely in
removing the coat of gutta-percha from
the surface of the leather — that is, rub-
bing it with the fingers, and rolling it off
the surface.
The color is not injured in the least by
the sulphuret of carbon; only those
leathers on which a dressing containing
starch has been used look a little lighter
in color, but the better class of leathers
are not so dressed. The dry gutta-per-
cha can be redissolved in sulphuret of
carbon and used over again.
To Clean Skins Used for Polishing
Purposes. — First beat them thoroughly
to get rid of dust, then go over the surface
on both sides with a piece of good white
soap and lay them in warm water in
which has been put a little soda. Let
them lie here for 2 hours, then wash them
in plenty of tepid water, rubbing them
vigorously until perfectly clean. This
bath should also be made alkaline with
soda. The skins are finally rinsed in
warm water, and dried quickly. Cold
water must be avoided at all stages of the
cleansing process, as it has a tendency to
shrink and harden the skins.
The best way to clean a chamois skin
is to wash and rinse it out in clean water
immediately after use, but this practice is
apt to be neglected so that the skin be-
comes saturated with dirt and grime.
To clean it, first thoroughly soak in
clean, soft water. Then, after soaping
it and rolling it into a compact wad, beat
with a small round stick — a buggy spoke,
say — turning the wad over repeatedly,
and keeping it well wet and soaped.
This should suffice to loosen the dirt.
Then rinse in clean water until the skin
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
187
is clean. As wringing by hand is apt to
injure the chamois skin, it is advisable to
use a small clothes wringer. Before
using the skin again rinse it in clear water
to which a little pulverized
alum has
been added.
STRAW-HAT RENOVATION:
To Renovate Straw Hats.— I. — Hats
made of natural (uncolored) straw, which
have become soiled by wear, may be
cleaned by thoroughly sponging with a
weak solution of tartaric acid in water,
followed by water alone. The hat after
being so treated should be fastened by
the rim to a board by means of pins, so
that it will keep its shape in drying.
II. — Sponge the straw with a solution of
By weight
Sodium hyposulphite. 10 parts
Glycerine 5 parts
Alcohol 10 parts
Water 75 parts
Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours
and then apply
By weight
Citric acid 2 parts
Alcohol 10 parts
Water 90 parts
Press with a moderately hot iron, after
stiffening with weak gum water, if neces-
sary.
III. — If the hat has become much dark-
ened in tint by wear the fumes of burning
sulphur may be employed. The material
should be first cleaned by thoroughly
sponging with an aqueous solution of
potassium carbonate, followed by a sim-
ilar application of water, and it is then
suspended over the sulphur fumes.
These are generated by placing in a metal
or earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the
heat from setting fire to anything beneath,
some brimstone (roll sulphur), and
sprinkling over it some live coals to start
combustion. The operation is con-
ducted in a deep box or barrel, the dish
of burning sulphur being placed at the
bottom, and the article to be bleached
being suspended from a string stretched
across the top. A cover not fitting so
tightly as to exclude all air is placed over
it, and the apparatus allowed to stand
for a few hours.
Hats so treated will require to be stif-
fened by the application of a little gum
water, and pressed on a block with a
hot iron to bring them back into shape.
Waterproof Stiffening for Straw Hats.
— If a waterproof stiffening is required
use one of the varnishes for which for-
mulas follow:
I. — Copal 450 parts
Sandarac 75 parts
Venice turpentine 40 parts
Castor oil 5 parts
Alcohol 800 parts
II.— Shellac 500 parts
Sandarac 175 parts
Venice turpentine 50 parts
Castor oil 15 parts
Alcohol 2,000 parts
III.— Shellac 750 parts
Rosin 150 parts
Venice turpentine 150 parts
Castor oil 20 parts
Alcohol 2,500 parts
How to Clean a Panama Hat. — Scrub
with castile soap and warm water, a
nail brush being used as an aid to get
the dirt away. The hat is then placed in
the hot sun to dry and in the course of
two or three hours is ready for use. It
will not only be as clean as when new,
but it will retain its shape admirably.
The cleaned hat will be a trifle stiff at
first, but will soon grow supple under
wear.
A little glycerine added to the rinsing
water entirely prevents the stiffness and
brittleness acquired by some hats in dry-
ing, while a little ammonia in the wash-
ing water materially assists in the scrub-
bing process. Ivory, or, in fact, any
good white soap, will answer as well as
castile for the purpose. It is well to
rinse a second time, adding the glycerine
to the water used the second time. Im-
merse the hat completely in the rinse
water, moving it about to get rid of
traces of the dirty water. When the hat
has been thoroughly rinsed, press out the
surplus water, using a Turkish bath towel
for the purpose, and let it rest on the
towel when drying.
PAINT, VARNISH, AND ENAMEL RE-
MOVERS:
To Remove Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish
Coats. — I. — Apply a mixture of about 5
parts of potassium silicate (water glass,
36 per cent), about 1 part of soda lye (40
per cent), and 1 part of ammonia. The
composition dissolves the old varnish
coat, as well as the paint, down to the
bottom. The varnish coatings which
are to be removed may be brushed off or
left for days in a hardened state. Upon
being thoroughly moistened with water
the old varnish may be readily washed
off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint
coming off completely. The ammonia
otherwise employed dissolves the var-
nish, but not the paint,
188
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
II. — Apply a mixture of 1 part oil of
turpentine and 2 parts of ammonia.
This is effective, even if the coatings
withstand the strongest lye. The two
liquids are shaken in a bottle until they
mix like milk. The mixture is applied
to the coating with a little oakum; after a
few minutes the old paint can be wiped
off.
To Clean Brushes and Vessels of Dry
Paint (see also Brushes and Paints). —
The cleaning o£ the brushes and ves-
sels in which the varnish or oil paint had
dried is usually done by boiling with
soda solution. This frequently spoils the
brushes or cracks the vessels if of glass;
besides, the process is rather slow and
dirty. A much more suitable remedy is
amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a
pleasant odor of fruit drops, used mainly
for dissolving and cementing celluloid.
If amyl acetate is poured over a paint
brush the varnish or hardened paint dis-
solves almost immediately and the brush
is again rendered serviceable at once. If
necessary, the process is repeated. For
cleaning vessels shake the liquid about in
them, which softens the paint so that it
can be readily removed with paper. In
this manner much labor can be saved.
The amyl acetate can be easily removed
from the brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil
of turpentine.
Varnish and Paint Remover. — Dis-
solve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per
cent) in 100 parts of water, mix the solu-
tion with 20 parts of mineral oil, and stir
in a kettle provided with a mechanical
stirrer, until the emulsion is complete.
Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of saw-
dust and pass the whole through a paint
mill to obtain a uniform intermixture.
Apply the paste moist.
To Remove Varnish from Metal.— To
remove old varnish from metals, it suf-
fices to dip the articles in equal parts of
ammonia and alcohol (95 per cent).
To Remove Water Stains from Var-
nished Furniture. — Pour olive oil into a
dish and scrape a little white wax into it.
This mixture should be heated until
the wax melts and rubbed sparingly on
the stains. Finally, rub the surface with
a linen rag until it is restored to bril-
liancy.
To Remove Paint, Varnish, etc., from
Wood. — Varnish, paint, etc., no matter
how old and hard, may be softened in a
few minutes so that they can be easily
scraped off, by applying the following
mixture;
Water glass 5 parts
Soda lye, 40° B. (27
per cent) 1 part
Ammonia water 1 part
Mix.
Removing Varnish, etc. — A patent
has been taken out in England for a
liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar,
and paint. The composition is made by
mixing 4 ounces of benzol, 3 ounces of
fusel oil, and 1 ounce of alcohol. It is
stated by the inventor that this mixture,
if applied to a painted or varnished sur-
face, will make the surface quite clean in
less than 10 minutes, and that a paint-
soaked brush " as hard as iron " can be
made as soft and pliable as new by
simply soaking for an hour or so in the
mixture.
To Remove Enamel and Tin Solder. —
Pour enough of oil of vitriol (concen-
trated sulphuric acid) over powdered
fluorspar in an earthen or lead vessel, so
as just to cover the parts whereby hydro-
fluoric acid is generated. For use, dip
the article suspended on a wire into the
liquid until the enamel or the tin is eaten
away or dissolved, which does not injure
the articles in any way. If heated, the
liquid acts more rapidly. The work
should always be conducted in the open
air, and care should be taken not to in-
hale the fumes, which are highly inju-
rious to the health, and not to get any
liquid on the skin, as hydrofluoric acid
is one of the most dangerous poisons.
Hydrofluoric acid must be kept in earth-
en or leaden vessels, as it destroys glass.
Removing Paint and Varnish from
Wood. — The following compound is
given as one which will clean paint or
varnish from wood or stone without in-
juring the material:
Flour or wood pulp. . 385 parts
Hydrochloric acid. . . 450 parts
Bleaching powder.. . 160 parts
Turpentine 5 parts
This mixture is applied to the surface
and left on for some time. It is then
brushed off, and brings the paint away
with it. It keeps moist quite long enough
to be easily removed after it has acted.
Paste for Removing Old Paint or
Varnish Coats. —
I. — Sodium hydrate 5 parts
Soluble soda glass ... 3 parts
Flour paste 6 parts
Water 4 parts
II. — Soap 10 parts
Potassium hydrate. . . 7 parts
Potassium silicate. ... 2 parts
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
189
To Remove Old Enamel.— Lay the
articles horizontally in a vessel contain-
ing a concentrated solution of alum and
boil them. The solution should be just
sufficient to cover the pieces. In 20 or
25 minutes the old enamel will fall into
dust, and the article can be polished with
emery. If narrow and deep vessels are
used the operation will require more
time.
INK ERADICATORS:
Two-Solution Ink Remover. —
I. — (a) Citric acid 1 part
Concentrated solu-
tion of borax ... 2 parts
Distilled water. ... 16 parts
Dissolve the acid in the water, add the
borax solution, and mix by agitation.
(fc) Chloride of lime. . . 3 parts
Water 16 parts
Concentrated bor-
ax solution ..... 2 parts
Add the chloride of lime to the water,
shake well and set aside for a week, then
decant the clear liquid and to it add the
borax solution.
For use, saturate the spot with solu-
tion (a), apply a blotter to take off the ex-
cess of liquid, then apply solution (6).
When the stain has disappeared, apply
the blotter and wet the spot with clean
water; finally dry between two sheets of
blotting paper.
II. — (a) Mix, in equal parts, potassium
chloride, potassium hypochlorite, and oil
of peppermint. (&) Sodium chloride,
hydrochloric acid and water, in equal
parts.
Wet the spot with (a), let dry, then
brush it overlightly with (6), and rinse in
clear water.
A good single mixture which will an-
swer for most inks is made by mixing
citric acid and alum in equal parts. If
desired to vend in a liquid form add an
equal part of water. In use, the powder
is spread well over the spot and (if on
cloth or woven fabrics) well rubbed in
with the fingers. A few drops of water
are then added, and also rubbed in. A
final rinsing with water completes the
process.
Ink Erasers. — I. — Inks made with nut-
galls and copperas can be removed by
using a moderately concentrated solu-
tion of oxalic acid, followed by use of
pure water and frequent drying with
clean blotting paper. Most other black
inks are erased by use of a weak solution
of chlorinated lime, followed by dilute
acetic acid and water, with frequent dry-
ing with blotters. Malachite green ink
is bleached by ammonia water; silver
inks by potassium cyanide or sodium
hyposulphite. Some aniline colors are
easily removed by alcohol, and nearly all
by chlorinated lime, followed by diluted
acetic acid or vinegar. In all cases
apply the substances with camel's-hair
brushes or feathers, and allow them to
remain no longer than necessary, after
which rinse well with water and dry with
blotting paper.
II. — Citric acid 1 part
Water, distilled 10 parts
Concentrated solution
of borax 2 parts
Dissolve the citric acid in the water
and add the borax. Apply to the paper
with a delicate camel's-hair pencil, re-
moving any excess of water with a blot-
ter. A mixture of oxalic, citric, and tar-
taric acids, in equal parts, dissolved in
just enough water to give a clean solution,
acts energetically on most inks.
Erasing Powder or Pounce. — Alum, 1
part; amber, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part;
saltpeter, 1 part. Mix well together and
keep in a glass bottle. If a little of
this powder is placed on an ink spot or
fresh writing, rubbing very lightly with a
clean linen rag, the spot or the writing
will disappear at once.
Removing Ink Stains. — I. — The ma-
terial requiring treatment should first be
soaked in clean, warm water, the super-
fluous moisture removed, and the fabric
spread over a clean cloth. Now allow
a few minims of liquor ammonia? fortis,
specific gravity 0.891, to drop on the ink
spot, then saturate a tiny tuft of absorbent
cotton-wool with acidum phosphoricum
dilutum, B. P., and apply repeatedly and
with firm pressure over the stain; repeat
the procedure two or three times, and
finally rinse well in warm water, after-
wards drying in the sun, when every
trace of ink will have vanished. This
method is equally reliable for old and
fresh ink stains, is rapid in action, and
will not injure the most delicate fabric.
II. — To remove ink spots the fabric
is soaked in warm water, then it is
squeezed out and spread upon a clean
piece of linen. Now apply a few drops
of liquid ammonia of a specific gravitj'
of 0.891 to the spot, and dab it next
with a wad of cotton which has been
saturated with dilute phosphoric acid.
After repeating the process several times
and drying the piece in the sun, the ink
spot will have disappeared without leav-
ing the slightest trace.
190
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
III. — Ink spots may be removed by
the following mixture:
Oxalic acid 10 parts
Stannic chloride .... 2 parts
Acetic acid 5 parts
Water to make 500 parts
Mix.
IV. — The customary method of cleans-
ing ink spots is to use oxalic acid. Thick
blotting paper is soaked in a concen-
trated solution and dried. It is then laid
immediately on the blot, and in many
instances will take the latter out without
leaving a trace behind. In more stub-
born cases the cloth is dipped in boiling
water and rubbed with crystals of oxalic
acid, after which it is soaked in a weak
solution of chloride of lime — say 1 ounce
to a quart of water. Under such circum-
stances the linen should be thoroughly
rinsed in several waters afterwards.
Oxalic acid is undesirable for certain
fabrics because it removes the color.
V. — Here is a more harmless method:
Equal parts of cream of tartar and citric
acid, powdered fine, and mixed together.
This forms the " salts of lemon " sold by
druggists. Procure a hot dinner plate,
lay the part stained in the plate, and
moisten with hot water; next rub in the
above powder with the bowl of a spoon
until the stains disappear; then rinse in
clean water and dry.
To Remove Red (Aniline) Ink.—
Stains of red anilines, except eosine, are
at once removed by moistening with
alcohol of 94 per cent, acidulated with
acetic acid. Eosine does not disappear
so easily. The amount of acetic acid to
be used is ascertained by adding it, drop
by drop, to the alcohol, testing the
mixture from time to time, until when
dropped on the stain, the latter at once
disappears.
CLEANING OF WALLS, CEILINGS, AND
WALL PAPER:
See also Household Formulas.
To Renovate Brick Walls.— Dissolve
glue in water in the proportion of 1 ounce
of glue to every gallon of water; add,
while hot, a piece of alum the size of a
hen's egg, £ pound Venetian red, and 1
pound Spanish brown. Add more water
if too dark; more red and brown if too
light.
Cleaning Painted Doors, Walls, etc. —
The following recipe is designed for
painted objects that are much soiled.
Simmer gently on the fire, stirring con-
stantly, 30 parts, by weight, of pulverized
borax, and 450 parts of brown soap of
good quality, cut in small pieces, in 3,000
parts of water. The liquid is applied by
means of flannel and rinsed off at once
with pure water.
To Remove Aniline Stains from Ceil-
ings, etc. — In renewing ceilings, the old
aniline color stains are often very annoy-
ing, as they penetrate the new coating.
Painting over with shellac or oil paint
will bring relief, but other drawbacks
appear. A very practical remedy is to
place a tin vessel on the floor of the room,
and to burn a quantity of sulphur in it
after the doors and windows of the room
have been closed. The sulphur vapors
destroy the aniline stains, which disap-
pear entirely.
Old Ceilings. — In dealing with old
ceilings the distemper must be washed
off down to the plaster face, all cracks
raked out and stopped with putty (plas-
ter of Paris and distemper mixed), and
the whole rubbed smooth with pumice
stone and water; stained parts should be
painted with oil color, and the whole
distempered. If old ceilings are in bad
condition it is desirable that they should
be lined with paper, which should have
a coat of weak size before being distem-
pered.
Oil Stains on Wall Paper.— Make a
medium thick paste of pipe clay and
water, applying it carefully flat upon the
oil stain, but avoiding all friction. The
paste is allowed to remain 10 to 12 hours,
after which time it is very carefully re-
moved with a soft rag. In many cases a
repeated action will be necessary until
the purpose desired is fully reached.
Finally, however, this will be obtained
without blurring or destroying the de-
sign of the wall paper, unless it be of the
cheapest variety. In the case of a light,
delicate paper, the paste should be com-
posed of magnesia and benzine.
To Clean Painted Walls.— A simple
method is to put a little aqua ammonia
in moderately warm water, dampen a
flannel with it, and gently wipe over the
painted surface. No scrubbing is nec-
essary.
Treatment of Whitewashed Walls.—
It is suggested that whitewashed walls
which it is desired to paper, with a view
to preventing peeling, should be treated
with water, after which the scraper
should be vigorously used. If the white-
•wash has been thoroughly soaked it can
easily be removed with the scraper.
Care should be taken that every part of
the wall is well scraped.
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
191
Cleaning Wall Paper. — I. — To clean
wall paper the dust should first be re-
moved by lightly brushing, preferably
with a feather duster, and the surface
then gently rubbed with slices of moder-
ately stale bread, the discolored surface
of the bread being removed from time
to time, so as to expose a fresh portion for
use. Care should be taken to avoid
scratching the paper with the crust of the
bread, and the rubbing should be in one
direction, the surface being systematically
gone over, as in painting, to avoid the
production of streaks.
II. — Mix 4 ounces of powdered pumice
with 1 quart of flour, and with the aid of
water make a stiff dough. Form the
dough into rolls 2 inches in diameter and
6 inches long; sew each roll separately
in a cotton cloth, then boil for 40 or 50
minutes, so as to render the mass firm.
Allow to stand for several hours, remove
the crust, and they are ready for use.
III. — Bread will clean paper; but un-
less it is properly used the job will be a
very tedious one. Select a " tin " loaf at
least two days old. Cut off the crust at
one end, and rub down the paper, com-
mencing at the top. Do not rub the
bread backwards and forwards, but in
single strokes. When the end gets dirty
take a very sharp knife and pare off a
thin layer; then proceed as before.
It is well to niake sure that the walls
are quite dry before using the bread, or it
may smear the pattern. If the room is
furnished it will, of course, be necessary
to place cloths around the room to catch
the crumbs.
IV. — A preparation for cleansing wall
paper that often proves much more effec-
tual than ordinary bread, especially when
the paper is very dirty, is made by mix-
ing § dough and ^ plaster of Paris. This
should be made a day before it is needed
for use, and should be very gently baked.
If there are any grease spots they
should be removed by holding a hot
flatiron against a piece of blotting paper
placed over them. If this fails, a little
fuller's earth or pipe clay should be made
into a paste with water, and this should
then be carefully plastered over the
grease spots and allowed to remain till
quite dry, when it will be found to have
absorbed the grease.
V. — Mix together 1 pound each of rye
flour and white flour into a dough,
which is partially cooked and the crust
removed. To this 1 ounce common
salt and £ ounce of powdered naph-
thaline are added, and finally 1 ounce of
corn meal, and | ounce of burnt umber.
The composition is formed into a mass.
of the proper size to be grasped in the
hand, and in use it should be drawn in
one direction over the surface to be
cleaned.
VI. — Procure a soft, flat sponge, being
careful that there are no hard or gritty
places in it, then get a bucket of new,
clean, dry, wheat bran. Hold the
sponge flat side up, and put a handful of
bran on it, then quickly turn against the
wall, and rub the wall gently and care-
fully with it; then repeat the operation.
Hold a large pan or spread down a drip
cloth to catch the bran as it falls, but
never use the same bran twice. Still
another way is to use Canton flannel in
strips a foot wide and about 3 yards
long. Roll a strip around a stick 1
inch thick and 10 inches long, so as to
have the ends of the stick covered, with
the nap of the cloth outside. As the
cloth gets soiled, unroll the soiled part
and roll it up with the soiled face inside.
In this way one can change places on
the cloth when soiled and use the whole
face of the cloth. To take out a grease
spot requires care. First, take several
thicknesses of brown wrapping paper
and make a pad, place it against the
grease spot, and hold a hot flatiron
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